Development and learning

developmental psychology

physical, cognitive, emotional, and social change throughout a lifespan

zygote

fertilized egg

embryo

An organism in the earliest stage of development

fetus

9 weeks after conception, organism starts to look human

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother's heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small. out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features

rooting reflex (root)

when something touches a baby's cheek, they turn toward the touch and root in that direction

grasping reflex

Stroking the palm of a baby's hand causes the baby to close his or her fingers in a grasp.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

potentially traumatic events that occur during childhood, such as abuse, neglect, and violence

synaptic pruning

the process in which the brain removes neurons and synapses that it does not need

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

gross motor skills

coordination involving large muscles and whole body movements

fine motor skills

coordination involving the small muscles of the body

stability and change

Do personalities and behaviors stay consistent throughout our lives (stability) or do they evolve over time (change)?

nature vs. nurture: question

are our traits and behaviors primarily shaped by genetics (nature) or by our environment and upbringing (nurture)?

nature and nurture big idea

both nature and nurture matter to human development. developmental psychologists are interested in how they interact and contribute to development

continuous and discontinuous stages of development

is human development a gradual process (continuous) or does it occur in distinct, defined stages (discontinuous)?

longitudinal studies

research that follows and retests the same people over time

cross-sectional studies

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

gender

in psychology, the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex

intersex

possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing

male answer syndrome

men are more likely than women to hazard answers than to admit they don't know

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in females and males. females typically have 2 X chromosomes; males typically have 1. an X chromosome from each parent produces a female child

y chromosome

the sex chromosome typically found only in males. when paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, the contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than males

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair

spermarche

the first ejaculation

menarche

the first menstrual period

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender roles

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women

sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harrassment or sexual assault

gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or femenine role

androgyny

displaying traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics

transgender

gender identity differs from what is typical for that person's birth-assigned sex

sexual orientation

the direction of one's sexual attraction

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Jean Piaget

developmental psychologist who formulated a 4 stage theory of development for children

schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accomodation

adapting our schemas to incorporate new information

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

reversibility

the cognitive ability to understand that certain actions of processes can be reversed

egocentric

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

pretend play

using imagination to create scenarios and act out roles

concrete operational stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events

formal operational

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning at about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Lev Vygotsky

Russian developmental psychologist who emphasized how the child's mind grows through interaction with the social-cultural environment

scaffold

In Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

zone of proximal development

the zone between what a child can and can't do - what a child can do with help

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and other's mental states - about their feelings, perceptions and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

imaginary audience

imagining what others think about us

personal fable

teens believing that they are unique and special and what happens to "most people" would never happen to them

moral intuitions

quick gut feelings

dementia

a cognitive disorder that impairs memory, cognition, and decision making

terminal decline

in the last 3 or 4 years of life, and especially as death approaches, cognitive decline typically accelerates

language

our agreed-upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morphemes

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix)

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

universal grammar (UG)

humans' innate predisposition to understand the principles and rules that govern grammar in all languages.

babbling stage

the stage in speech development, beginning around 4 months, during which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds that are not all related to the household language

cooing

early vowel-like sounds that babies produce

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

critical period - language

Childhood seems to represent a critical period for mastering certain aspects of language before the language learning window closes.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area

a frontal lobe brain area, usually in the left hemisphere, that helps control language expression by directing the muscle movements involved in speech

wernicke's area

a brain area, usually in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and expression

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

linguistic relativism

the idea that language influences the way we think

overgeneralization

errors in the application of grammar rules (don't know the exceptions)

ecological systems theory

a theory of the social environments influence on human development, using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences

seperation anxiety

the distress displayed by infants when away from caregivers

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness

disorganized attachment

infants who show no consistent behavior during these separations and reunions

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

avoidant attachment

people experience discomfort when getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance from others

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

authoritarian

parents are coercive. They impose rules and expect obedience

permissive

parents are unrestraining. They make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment.