24: Relations with Indigenous Peoples

Growth of Nationalism: Legacy of War

Much of the empire was affected by the war, e.g. by direct fighting and/or occupation. Black soldiers fought alongside white and the colonies expected some reward but Britain's reluctance brought disillusionment and impatience

: Economic and Social Discontent

Rapid post-war economic growth, but sometimes local people were not always sufficiently skilled to benefit from the job opportunities and some development came at the expense of tradition farming and employment. When British development projects failed it was local people who suffered. In some places e.g. Gold Coast, Nairobi, there was a surplus of educated youth, unwilling to take manual employment - because of efforts to improve education

: Ethnic and Religious Rivalries

Nationalist movements were fuelled by tensions between ethnic groups. Some felt discriminated against when Britain favoured one above another e.g. the restriction of Malay nationality to those of Malay ethnicity in 1949 encouraged discontented Chinese to support nationalist attacks upon Europeans, the political mobilisation of the Ashanti in the Gold Coast and the Yoruba and Northern Muslims in Nigeria was in response to suspicions that other ethnic groups were being favoured

: Charismatic and Western Educated leaders

Key figures able to unite different ethnic groups and factions were crucial for the emergence of nationalist independence movements. All learnt to think critically, absorbing political ideas about nationalism, liberalism, socialism and Marxism which challenged imperial rule

Why movements were a threat

Showed they had mass support which put the British in a difficult position because of their belief in democracy and self-determination. They were obliged to bow to respectable political organisations. Nationalist parties used mass mobilisation and mass action to achieve their aims. Sometimes they were militant which made it difficult to maintain control. Britain allowed nationalist movements to exist through education and some political representation

Threat from MRLA and MCP

Malayan Races Liberation Army (MRLA) and Malayan Communist Party (MCP) threaten British Rule in Malaya. They were militant and attacked farms and police stations, organised strike activity and disruption of transport and communication with provoked the Malayan emergency. MCP was declared illegal in 1948. In 1951, the High Commissioner, Sir Henry Gurney was shot by MCP guerrillas

Co-operation with UMNO

UMNO offered a positive programme of action and was ready to combat the very different tactics adopted by the militant independence movements such as the MRLA and the MCP. Britain co-operated with them in order to defeat the communists

Ethnic tensions in Malaya

Britain decided that Malay nationalist would be restricted to those of Malay ethnicity in 1949. Ja'afar left UMNO in 1951 to form his own Independence of Malaya Party (IMP) having failed to broaden his party's ethnic membership. Under Tunku Abdul Rahman, the UMNO increased its power through alliances, but the underlying friction remained. Co-operation with the MCA (Malayan Chinese Association) in 1954 and the MIC (Malayan Indian Congress) in 1955 ensured electoral success but did not resolve the issues of a racially divided peninsula. The emergency created enough chaos to make UMNO look moderate so the British were more likely to work with them Tunku became the first Chief Minister of Malaya in 1955, however his discussions with Chin Peng of the MCP broke down - even the moderates didn't agree. Tunku turned to London to support a deal that would lead to full independence in August 1957. Even after independence ethnic troubles plagued the politics of the new state

British acceleration to independence

Fearful of rise of communism, for the safety of their economic resources - tin and rubber industry and for the loss of the key strategic position of Malaya. To restore stability, they had to depend on the local indigenous elite - which they gained by offering staged self-government. They remained in control because they fought the counter insurgency very successfully, but in order to do this they had to make concessions

Regional Groups in Nigeria: NCNC

National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons - Dominated by the Igbo (SE) , under the commanding personality of Azikiwe, who owned newspapers through which he argued the nationalist cause. It had the widest appeal

: The Action Group

Dominated by the Yoruba (SW), resisted the concept of unitary government. Represented the comparatively economically advanced west. Despite divisions arising from conflict with the Yoruba community, its leader, Awolowo proved a formidable debater and political campaigner. It sought autonomous states within a federal structure

: NCP

Northern People's Congress - dominated by the Hausa and Fulani (N). Led by western educated northern Muslims with the assent of the emirs (local elite). Led by Ahmadu Bello who wanted to protect northern social and political institutions from southern influence and insisted on maintaining territorial integrity of the northern region, including areas with non-Muslim populations. Peasant disaffection and rivalry among Muslim factions proved problematic

Ethnic tensions in Nigeria

In all three regions, there were other minority parties representing the special interests of ethnic groups. It was an artificial creation, made up of diverse people and regions so nationalism derived more from pan Africanism than from any sense of common Nigerian nationality. North Islamic area had decidedly anti-western nationalist sentiments. There were also conflicts between the Yoruba and the Igbo which grew more acute as they competed for control. The west was economically advanced and ambitions, seeking independent control. Southern nationalism was more influenced by European ideas, professional organisations of teachers, lawyers and traders and independent Christian churches. It wanted to promote education and economic development. All the different interest groups made negotiations with the British over constitutional change a difficult exercise in compromise and political expediency. It took time to create a constitution that was workable and acceptable to all parties. The cooperation that emerged was more the result of necessity in the face of an overall goal than the product of an emerging sense of national identity

British reforms

Able to slow path to independence by drawing up 3 constitutions from 1946 to 1954 amidst considerable political controversy as ethnic divisions intensified. Ethnic tensions helped them limit reforms to slow concessions

Purpose of CAF

Created the CAF in 1953 to try to forestall a potential situation of Southern Rhodesian politicians extending their influence over the mineral rich northern Rhodesia in an attempt to protect Africans in N Rhodesia and Nyasaland from discriminatory S Rhodesian laws. However, southern white people tried to use the federation to reinforce their own political leadership and to give the white northern Rhodesians the same political influence

Nationalism in the CAF

Black nationalist congress parties emerged in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. In 1959, Dr Hastings Banda of Nyasaland led a campaign to end the federation . Robert Armitage, Governor of Nyasaland, fearing the collapse of British authority, promptly declared a State of Emergency and banned the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) and imprisoned its leaders (including Banda and Kaunda. Around 1300 were also detained without trial and over 2000 were imprisoned for offences related to the Emergency. Reinforcements from N and S Rhodesia were used to round up activists and 51 were killed by troops or the police, including 20 in an incident Nkata Bay in March 1959. A British commission of 1959 concluded that the Emergency had been an overreaction. It denounced Nyasaland for employing illegal and unnecessary force and endorse the opinion that the majority of Nyasaland Africans were bitterly opposed to federation. Macmillan and Macleod had little choice but to break up the federation

Damage of UDI 1965

It damaged the process of decolonisation. It was rejected as illegal and unconstitutional by Britain, the UN and most of the rest of the world. Britain imposed sanctions but they proved of little use as SA refused to cooperate. It revealed Britain's embarrassing impotence. Whilst claiming a world role, it proved unable to deal with rebels in its own ex-colony. Britain received criticism from the Commonwealth, accusing Britain of betraying commonwealth ideals. It triggered a 15 year long civil war between white people and black nationalist in what Smith called Rhodesia

Causes of Mau Mau Rebellion

Kikuyu found themselves progressively squeezed off land in the 'white highlands' to accommodate an expanding number of white settlers. They were confined to reservation lands which were inadequate for their needs. African population multiplied between the wars, and the lack of land caused hunger. 90% of Kikuyu recruits to the army were rejected because they were suffering from malnutrition. Nairobi government became more favourable towards the white settlers. Trade regulation favoured the whites and it bore down more heavily on black farmers by telling them what to plant, how to grow and where to sell. European immigration increased after the war and the pace of evictions increased. Between 1946 and 1952 a hundred thousand squatters were deprived of their livestock without compensation. Evictions (sometimes violent) added to growing Kikuyu concerns that their communities were falling apart. Having fought for white troops overseas, they faced repression at home because they were black. Black men having sex with white women was illegal and could have been hanged. Kenya imposed a colour bar and was segregated. Urban conditions were appalling in Nairobi alongside unemployment. Trade union activity and press freedom was limited. Protests were responded to with repression rather than black representation. Significant over farming

Extent Britain was to blame

Regime was based on privileged white settlers who were determined Kenya would be dominated politically/ economically by them. Many grievances were directly caused by actions of white settlers. The governor, Sir Philip Mitchell, announced in 1948 that self-government would not be possible in the near future which fuelled frustrations

Rebels aims

Protesting against rising prices, racial discrimination and for end of colonial rule. Demands for 'land and freedom' were accompanied by ferocious oathing ceremonies, which aimed to unify resistance against white tyranny

Rebels

Largely Kikuyus, partial peasant revolt and part criminal gang action. The KLFA failed to capture widespread public support, partly due to the British policy of divide and rule

Rebel methods

Attacks were well planned, fast and brutal. Mainly guerrilla attacks launched at night. Used guns, machetes and bows and arrows. Lari massacres - night 25-26 March 1953, they herded people into huts and set fire to them, hacking down with machetes anyone who attempted escape, before throwing them back into the burning huts. Kikuyu were tortured, mutilated and murdered by Mau Mau on many occasions. Its supporters killed 95 Europeans and 13 000 black people. Chief of Kikuyu, Kungu, spoke out against the atrocities and was assassinated in October 1952. Intimidated people to take their ritualistic oath of allegiance and killed people if they refused

Dedan Kimathi

Leader of the Mau Mau rebellion. Believed in compelling fellow Kikuyu by way of oath to bring solidarity to the independence movement. Used guerrilla tactics to fight against the British. Captured in 1956 and executed the following year. A national hero in Kenya. Kenyan government regretted that it took 40 years for the group to be officially registered despite the sacrifices the Mau Mau had made for Kenya's independence

British Response

Supressing the uprising cost Britain £55m. Sent thousands of troops to Kenya. Declared a State of Emergency in 1952 which suspended all black African political rights and the Mau Mau were treated as political terrorists. Kenya became a police state, dispensing racist terror. Black leaders were imprisoned, including Kenyatta. British security forces formed 'strike squads' to carry out assassinations, show civilians in cold blood and massacred the innocent with the guilty. Kikuyu villages were uprooted and relocated to gaol-villages where there was a regime of searches, curfews, restrictions, interrogations and forced labour which cut the Mau Mau off from their sources of support. Mau Mau suspects were routinely tortured to extract information. Hola Camp Atrocities March 1959: 11 Mau Mau detainees were beaten to death and 77 received serious injuries. Britain was fortunate that many black Kenyans showed little desire to help a movement which would replace British supremacy with Kikuyu supremacy. Britain recruited a 'home guard' of loyal Kikuyu to assist British ground troops aided by helicopters and planes and sponsored welfare programmes to help the ethnic groups who remained loyal

Results of British Response

Between 1952 and 1956, 11-1200 people were killed and 81 000 detained. Some white people in Kenya were prepared to form a multiracial party. Macmillan's 'wind of change' speech of 1960 and the shift of policy towards independence was undoubtedly linked to the Mau Mau insurrection. New governor of Kenya, Sir Patrick Renison paved the way for a move towards independence and black majority rule which was granted in 1963, whereupon 1500 remaining Mau Mau guerrillas laid down their arms

Media

Reported the savagery of the rebels.

Operation Legacy

Operation Legacy was a British Colonial Office program to destroy or hide files, to prevent them being inherited by its ex-colonies. It ran from the 1950s until the 1970s. Documents that might embarrass the British government or show racial or religious bias, were destroyed or sent to the United Kingdom. Some of the files detailed torture methods used against opponents of the colonial administrations, e.g., during the Mau Mau Uprising. Mau Mau Uprising. Imperialists were often all too aware that if the true nature of their mission was exposed it would also undermine the image of liberal democracy that was deployed to distinguish the West from authoritarian regimes. Serious concerns about the clampdown were raised as far back as 1953, when the then Solicitor General described reported abuses as ''distressingly reminiscent of conditions in Nazi Germany or Communist Russia'', according to one of the secret documents. The Hola Camp Atrocities were covered up by the British authorities. "If we are going to sin, we must sin quietly." This advice, from the attorney general of colonial Kenya to its governor, Evelyn Baring, when stipulating the forced labour policies in detention camps in Kenya in the late 1950s". "Mau Mau survivors of torture and brutality successfully sued the British government for their ill treatment, receiving millions of pounds in compensation." 2011

Consequences for: Kenyan nationalists

Over 200 000 Mau Mau fighters were killed during the emergency. Little had been done to reconcile the Mau Mau detainees. Jomo Kenyatta the suspected Mau Mau leader was still in prison. Kenyans were granted nearly all of the demands made by the KAU in 1951. On 18 January 1955, Evelyn Baring, offered an amnesty to Mau Mau activists. The offer was that they would not face prosecution for previous offences, but may still be detained. European settlers were appalled at the leniency of the offer. On 10 June 1955 with no response forthcoming, the offer of amnesty to the Mau Mau was revoked. In June 1956, a programme of land reform increased the land holdings of the Kikuyu. This was coupled with a relaxation of the ban on native Kenyans growing coffee, a primary cash crop. They also raised urban wages and accepted majority rule. Ban on African political movements was lifted in a conference in London in January 1960 and a constitution was devised which gave elected Africans a majority in the Kenan legislature. Kenyatta was released from prison and became the leader of KANU. Kenya became independent in December 1963

: Britain

Showed that the colonial government were poorly equipped to deal with large-scale insurrection

Akala

Legacy of empire was deliberately tampered with to make it look more benign than it was. Nobody colonises another group of people because they love them or because they want them to have democracy and the rule of law