AP PSYCH UNIT 2 PART 1

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72 Terms

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selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

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inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

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change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

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perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

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gestalt

an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

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figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

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grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

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depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

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visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

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binocular cue

a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.

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convergence

a cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images.

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retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance — the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

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monocular cue

a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

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stroboscopic movement

an illusion of continuous movement (as in a motion picture) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images.

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phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.

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autokinetic effect

the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room.

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perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

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color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

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perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.

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cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

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metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

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concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

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prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow).

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schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

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assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

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accommodation (in developmental psychology)

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

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creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas.

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convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

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divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

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executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior.

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algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics.

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heuristic

a simple thinking strategy—a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.

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insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.

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confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

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fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving.

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mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

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intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

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representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

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availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

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overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

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belief perseverance

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

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framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

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nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions.

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memory

persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

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recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

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relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

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encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning.

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storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

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retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

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parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

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sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

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short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten.

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long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

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working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

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central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

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phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

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visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space.

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neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

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explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

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effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

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automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

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implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

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iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

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echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

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chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

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mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

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spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

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testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

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shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

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deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.