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the conceptual nervous system (cNS) is a ____ model
bridging
behavioural genetics
quantitatively oriented science that attempts to estimate the relative contributions of both heritable and environmental factors to human behaviour
dominance
when the expression of one phenotype is shown over another
polygenic
influenced by multiple genes
characteristics of interest to psychologists typically polygenic
predispositions
a liability or tendency to suffer from a particular condition, hold a particular attitude, or act in a particular way
negative or positive
heritability
h²
ratio of genetic variance to phenotypic variance
the proportion of observed trait’s expression can be chalked up to genetic factors
range from 0 to 1
heritability estimates
give idea to how important genes are to expression of given trait
based on whole populations
dependent on the measurement approach
variance
quantifies the amount of ‘spread’ in a given population such as intelligence
wider bell has more variance
genotype
alleles possessed by an individual organism
phenotype
manifested characteristics of an organism
polygenic determination
several genes contribute to the expression of a certain characteristic
is h² constant over time?
no, since variance in any trait can change so can heritability
about genetic differences, not about nature vs. nurture
two types of environment effects
shared environment (c²) and non-shared (e²)
shared environment
(c²) aspects encountered by all members of a certain group
ex., siblings raised by same parents
non-shared environment
(e²) things encountered uniquely
ex. your peer group
epigenetics
study of changes in the expression of genes that do not result from alterations in the sequence of the genetic code
some genes switched on or off due to trauma or other stressors
DNA methylation
DNA methylation
when molecules called methyl groups attach to certain pieces of DNA, can affect gene expression
(epigenetics)
serotonin transporter gene
SLC6A4
lower levels of serotonin associated with increased aggression
oxytocin transporter gene
OXTR
related to empathy and emotional regulation
monoamineoxidase promoter
MAO-A
initiates transcription, first step in expression
hypermethalyation associated with increased aggression and ASPD
dopamine receptor gene
DRDI
more methylated in aggressive boys and girls
related to lower executive functioning and cognition
evocative style
even though you and your sibling have same mother, the influence she exerts on your behaviour is different than your siblings
concordance
sameness
twin study results
monozygotic twins have higher concordance of criminality
problem: gene effects are confounded with environment effects
confound
something else exists that makes it difficult to truly attribute results to the independent variable
h² can be estimated by examining the difference in______ between MZ and DZ twins
correlation
h² estimates fall into the ______ range
0.3 to 0.4
c² estimates fall around 0.3 but _______ dramatically over lifespan
decrease
due to parental influence decreasing and total variability increasing
h² higher for ______ traits like aggressiveness, IQ, impulsivity
component
adoption studies (including the two methods)
help separate heritability from environmental effects
follow children adopted from criminal families
problem: neglects e², could have influences from bio parents prior to adoption
follow children adopted from and into, both criminal and non-criminal families
results of Mednick’s adoption study
criminality in sons highest when biological and adoptive parents were criminal
interaction effect
biological influence greater than the environmental, as those with biological criminal parents had higher convictions than just adoptive criminal parents
objections to adoption studies
adoptive homes more alike than others due to SES, screenings, etc.
effects artificially suppress e² estimates
criminal behaviour best understood in terms of an _____ between genetic and environmental factors
interaction
cNS model
conceptual nervous system
theory about functioning of CNS
based on psychological and physical properties
emphasizes different aspects of functioning
general model, not just for criminality
Eysenck’s three-factor model
based on ARAS levels
results in differences along orthogonal (uncorrelated) dimensions of I-E, P, and N
I-E, P,N influence pre-disposition (personality), therefore one’s tendency to engage in criminal behaviour
moderator variables
ascending reticular activating system
ARAS, plays role in the three-factor model
receives input from major sensory systems
involved in sleep-wake transitions and level of cortical arousal
cortical arousal
background activity / noise in the brain, everybody has a different preferred level
role in ARAS
extraversion (TFM)
find absence of social interactions distressing, draw energy from social interactions
low background activity / cortical arousal
ex., sex offender
introversion (TFM)
do not seek stimulation, they find performing exhausting
high background activity / cortical arousal
ex., cyber criminal
high psychoticism (TFM)
autism scale
don’t see self as integrated into society, see others as fixtures or resources
no empathetic reaction or perspective taking
ex., psychopath
low psychoticism (TFM)
overly enmeshed with others
difficulty separating self
stable neuroticism (TFM)
opposite of neurotic
ex., pilot
unstable neuroticism (TFM)
measure of how quickly emotional state can change in reactivity
ex., second or third degree murder
problem with TFM
most criminals commit many different types of crime
prisoners score higher on which TF variables?
neuroticism and psychoticism, even though they thought I-E would be the biggest difference
gray’s model
deals with organism’s responses to conditioned stimuli
based on septohippocampal system (SHS)
for learning and memory
BAS, BIS, and NAS
behavioural activation system
(gray’s model)
sensitive to reward and active avoidance
operates on basis of reciprocal inhibition with BIS
established by learning
active avoidance
a behaviour is completed to avoid, doesn’t have to be conscious
passive avoidance
not acting leads to avoiding an undesirable outcome
behavioural inhibition system
(Gray’s model)
activated by cues for punishment and non-reward. serves to re-focus attention toward other cues
operates on basis of reciprocal inhibition with BAS
non-specific arousal system
(Gray’s model)
modulates the intensity of behaviours triggered by both systems
how does the gray method explain criminal behaviour?
criminals have an imbalance
BAS activity predominates
BIS fails to inhibit goal-oriented behaviour (either something fundamentally different in brain or parental punishment was non-contingent)
traumatic brain injury
the onset of illness can mark emergence of highly antisocial, aggressive behaviour
more frequently in someone who had those tendencies before
outbreaks of aggression attributable to TBI are ___ that common
not
typically verbal threats rather than physical aggression
not clearly related to severity of injury
coup contracoupe injury
coupe is the first impact at the back of the head, contracoupe is when the front takes the most damage
which lobe is the most common site of injury?
frontal lobe, due to car accidents
two patterns of frontal lobe injury
lethargic, apatehtic, indifferent (diffuse)
lobotomy
impulsive / aggressive (orbito-frontal)
hit by bat
limbic system
deep mid-brain structures (amygdala and hippocampus)
involved in emotional regulation and memory consolidation
damage here makes us highly emotional
80 / 20 rule
at the one year mark of recovery 80% will have taken place, 20% between year 1 & 2
temporal lobe epilepsy
fast, spike-like activity in EEG recordings over temporal lobe, accompanied by increase risk for aggression
followed by confusion and limited recall
most physiological correlates of increased aggression likely have an _____ _____
indirect effect
_____ ______ remains an important predictor of aggression after TBI
pre-morbid persoanlity
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