Semester Exam (Fall 2025 - AP)

encoding

the processing of information into memory

storage

the process of holding onto memory over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

sensory memory

brief recording of sensory information into memory (two examples are iconic and echoic)

short term memory

memory store that holds a few items (5-9) briefly (15-30 seconds) before the information is either transferred into long term memory or forgotten.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and unlimited memory store.

explicit memory

memories that are easy to describe to others, require attention and conscious effort (two examples are semantic memory and episodic memory)

implicit memory

memories that that are difficult to describe to others, occur without conscious effort (one example is procedural memory)

iconic memory

brief sensory memory of what you see (last less than 1/2 second)

echoic memory

brief sensory memory of what you hear (lasts 3-4 seconds)

shallow processing (encoding)

level of processing that encodes on a superficial level based on the sound (phonemic encoding) or appearance (structural encodig), or simple repetition (maintenance rehearsal).

deep processing (encoding)

level of processing that encodes based on the meaning of the words

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, "neurons that fire together wire together", biological bases for memory

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future

episodic memory

memory of specific events and experiences from one's life (explicit memory)

semantic memory

memory of facts and general knowledge (explicit memory)

working memory

active manipulation and processing of information in short-term memory

procedural memory

memory of a well-learned skill or task (implicit memory)

effortful processing (encoding)

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing (encoding)

encoding that does not require attention or effort, such as space, time and frequency without effort

structural encoding

encoding something based on what it looks like (shallow processing)

phonemic encoding

encoding based on what something sounds like (shallow processing)

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention, switches between tasks, and facilitate goal achievement

phonological loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information (inner ear/inner voice)

visuospatial sketchpad

the part of working memory that holds and processes visual images and spatial layouts (inner television screen)

primary memory system

another term used to describe working memory

levels of processing model

theory stating that deeper processing of information increases the likelihood that the information will be recalled

multi-store memory model

proposes that memory travels through three storehouses, sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

mnemonic devices

memory aids

method of loci

items to be remembered are converted to mental images and associated with specific locations known to an individual

chunking

organizing items into smaller and or meaningful units

massed practice

learning where practice sessions are close together or in one session

distributed practice

learning where practice sessions are separated by lengthy rest

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed practice to result in better long-term memory retention than massed practice

serial position effect

our tendency to best remember the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list

maintenance rehearsal

the repetition of information in its original, unaltered form

elaborative rehearsal

the connecting of new information with information that has already been learned or experienced

HSAM (highly superior autobiographical memory)

superior recall of the daily facts and events in a person's life

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, language, and physical functioning

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood due to an underdeveloped hippocampus

recall

a retrieval process in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier without prompting or cues

recognition

a retrieval process in which the person need only identify items previously learned - with cues

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of previous learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of recent learning on the recall of old information

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory

context dependent memory

information learned in a particular situation or environment is better remembered when in that same situation or environment

state dependent memory

retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same

testing effect

improved memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus)

the process of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)

experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event increases the belief that the event actually occurred

memory construction

memory is a construct of the mind and therefore can be updated and altered with new info and experiences

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory after it has transferred from short-term memory

Sensation

The process by which our sensory organs collect raw information from the environment and send it to the brain.

Transduction

The process of converting one form of energy into neural signals that our brain can understand.

Absolute threshold

The minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a sensation 50% of the time.

Just-noticeable difference

The smallest change in a stimulus that a person can detect.

Weber's law

The principle that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Sensory adaptation

When our sensitivity to a constant stimulus decreases over time.

Sensory interaction

When one sense affects how we perceive another sense.

Synesthesia

A condition where stimulation of one sense automatically triggers another sense.

Light Wavelength

The distance between peaks in a light wave, which determines color.

Light Amplitude

The height of light waves, which determines brightness.

Cornea

Clear outer covering that protects the eye and focuses light

Pupil

The black opening that lets light in.

Iris

The colored part that controls pupil size.

Lens

Part of the eye that focuses light onto the retina.

Retina

Light-sensitive inner layer of the eye that consists of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones).

Fovea

Center of the retina containing only cones (no rods); point of sharpest vision.

Bipolar cells

Cells that connect photoreceptors (rods and cones) to ganglion cells.

Ganglion cells

Cells that send visual information to the brain.

Optic nerve

The nerve formed by the axons of ganglion cells that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Blind spot

Area where optic nerve exits retina, containing no photoreceptors (rods and cones).

Accommodation

The process where the lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances.

Nearsightedness

A condition where visual images focus in front of the retina, causing distant objects to appear blurry.

Farsightedness

A condition where visual images focus behind the retina, causing near objects to appear blurry.

Photoreceptors

Cells in the retina that detect light (rods and cones).

Rods

Photoreceptors for dim light and black-and-white vision.

Cones

Photoreceptors for bright light and color vision in blue, green, and red types.

Trichromatic theory

Explains color vision through three types of cones responding to red, green, and blue light.

Opponent-process theory

Explains how we process color through opposing pairs in the ganglion cells (red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black)

Afterimages

A visual sensation that persists after a stimulus is removed; usually appears in the opposing color (e.g., seeing red after staring at green).

Dichromatism

Color blindness where person has two sets of cones that function.

Monochromatism

Color blindness where person has one set of cones that function.

Prosopagnosia

Inability to recognize faces.

Blindsight

Ability to respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness.

Pinna

Outer ear that collects sound waves.

Auditory Canal

Tunnel that carries sound to eardrum.

Tympanic Membrane

Membrane in the middle ear that vibrates with sound waves.

Ossicles

Three tiny bones in the middle ear that amplify sound vibrations.