EOY Biology 9H

2022-2023 school year

a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

Chromosomes

granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins

Chromatin

a type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles

Prokaryotic Cell

a type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles.

Eukaryotic Cell

process in which cells become specialized in structure and function

Differentiation

replicates its genetic material prior to dividing

Prokaryotic Cell

Which of the following BEST describes the physiological functions accomplished in mitosis?

asexual reproduction in certain organisms, in addition to growth, differentiation, and replacement of dead or dying cells in multicellular organisms

What is a gradient? Why is it important?

The gradient is movement from high concentration to low concentration. It is what drives all biological and chemical processes, it requires no energy, and evidence of God's master plan.

\_______ is the process of cell division that results in the formation of two daughter cells with a \______________

Mitosis; diploid

Which of the following do NOT occur during the process of mitosis?  Select ALL that apply:

synapsis and crossing over, replication of chromosomes

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WRONG ANSWERS: degradation of the nuclear envelope, condensation of chromosomes, formation of the spindle apparatus

Put the stages of a somatic cell cycle in their correct order

Interphase G1, Interphase S, Interphase G2, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis

containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Diploid

an organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes.

Haploid

stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions

G1 Phase

replication of DNA/RNA, haploid/diploid does not change, chromatid number doubles

S Phase

stage of interphase in which cell duplicates its cytosol and organelles

G2 Phase

How is meiosis different from mitosis?

Meiosis is used to create sex cells. In the end, there are 4 cells all different with a haploid (23) number of chromosomes. Meiosis is for sexual reproduction.



Whereas, mitosis is used in body cells for growth and repair as well as asexual reproduction in some unicellular organisms. In the end, there are 2 cells that are identical, each with a diploid (46) number of chromosomes.

During mitosis, chromatin condense into _______ __during__ _____.

chromosomes; prophase

nuclear membrane disappears and chromosomes become visible

Prophase

chromosomes attach to spindle fibers and line up on cell's equator

Metaphase

spindle fiber separate and pull chromatids apart towards the poles of the cell

Anaphase

nuclear membranes reform, cleavage furrow, cytokinesis

Telophase

Simple, one sentence description of meiosis

Meiosis is mitosis twice in a row forming 4 different haploid cells.

Discuss the differences between somatic cells and gametes: what they are, what they do differently, and why there is a need for them to be different.

Somatic cells are body cells. They perform mitosis to make new cells with identical DNA. They are used for tissue repair, gowth, and asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms. 



Gametes are sex cells. They perform meiosis to make 4 haploid cells, each with different DNA. This is for formation of the egg. 



Somatic cells and gametes need to be different because they do different things and without the different processes, there would be no genetic variation for getting rid of bad genes.

Explain why it is necessary for certain cells to go through meiosis instead of all cells reproducing by mitosis.  What are the reasons that drive this necessity?  Give an example of what would happen if no meiosis ever took place.

It is necessary for certain cells to go through meiosis so that new organisms can form that are not an exact copy of the parent. This is important for natural selection and genetic variation. If meiosis never took place, we would not be able to evolve into the complex humans we are today, keeping the genes that worked well. We would all be the same and additionally all of the bad genes would be passed on. For example, we would not be able to adapt to cold or warm environment without meiosis.

In the eukaryotic cell, there are various checkpoints at which the cell monitors its processes to ensure that they are occuring normally before progressing to the next phase of the cell cycle.  

 

Which of the following checkpoints ensures that the cell's DNA is free of mistakes and damage following DNA replication, prior to entering mitosis?

The G2 checkpoint

In Meiosis 1, the starting cell has a _______ number of chromosomes.  At the end of Meiosis 1, there are ______ daughter cells with a __________ number of chromosomes.

diploid; 2; haploid

In Meiosis 2, there is (are) ________________ starting cell(s) with a ___________________ number of chromosomes.  At the end of Meiosis 2, there are _________ daughter cells with a __________________ number of chromosomes.

2; haploid; 4; haploid

Genetic variation occurs because of crossing over of genes coded on homologous chromosomes in _____ __of meiosis. The__ _____ of the gene segment results in a new chromosome that is structurally identical but with slight difference in gene expression.

prophase 1; crossover/recombination

In this stage of photosynthesis, ADP is converted using the ETC into ATP

PS 2

\*know where cuticle, upper epidermis, chloroplast, vascular bundle, lower epidermis, guard cells, stoma, and mesophyll are

\*know where inner membrane, inter membrane space, outer membrane, storm, thylakoid, and lamella are

In this stage of photosynthesis, energy is not supplied by sunlight

Calvin Cycle

Which pigment is MOST important to plants in helping regulate temperature and dissipate heat?

Carotenoids

Describe what a cycle is in biology. What component is most important in making a cycle a cycle? Explain what cycle is utilized in photosynthesis.

A cycle is a process that starts and ends with the same things and happens over and over again. It is important that a cycle is done on a medium. The Calvin cycle is utilized in photosynthesis. It starts and ends with the same energy compounds ADP and NADP and the medium is the enzyme Rubisco.

Write a simple formula for the process of photosynthesis:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light = 6 O2 and C6H12O6

What are the raw materials needed for photosynthesis that the plant needs to take in?

sunlight, carbon dioxide, water

Which of the following is NOT a part of the Calvin Cycle?

Light absorption

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Wrong answers: carbon fixation, ETC, regeneration

What stage of photosynthesis provides all the necessary hydrogen ions and free electrons for the entire process?

PS 2

compound used by all cells for energy to drive their internal functions

Adenosine Triphosphate

an organism that is able to form nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide

Autotroph

process by which plants and other autotrophs are able to manufacture their own energy

Photosynthesis

A membrane system found within chloroplasts that contains the components for photosynthesis

Thylakoid

Collection of thylakoid membranes resembling stacks of coins

Grana

A difference in chemical concentrations, electrical charge, physical pressure, temperature, or other variable between one point

Gradient

Clear gel-like liquid in chloroplasts

Stroma

An electron carrier that provides the high-energy electrons needed to make carbon-hydrogen bonds in photosynthesis

NADPH

Light absorbing compounds in plants, used for energy in photosynthesis and self-regulation

Pigment

End product of photosynthesis

Glucose

What is the waste product of photosynthesis?  Why is waste important?  Give another example of how waste is used to benefit another part of a food web.

Oxygen is the waste product of photosynthesis. Waste is important because anything that an organism can't use can be used by a different organism. Another example of waste benefiting another part of a food web is when humans breathe out carbon dioxide and plants take it in for photosynthesis.

Describe the function of ***rubisco.***  What stage of photosynthesis utilizes this compound/enzyme?  How is it used?  What does the plant need to take in to utilize rubisco properly?

Rubisco is the enzyme that serves as a medium for the Calvin Cycle. It is the medium to put ATP and the 3C sugars together to make glucose. The plant needs to take in carbon dioxide to utilize rubisco properly.

In which stage of photosynthesis is oxygen released?

PS 2

In which stage of photosynthesis is electron transport used to convert ADP to ATP

PS 2

Which stage of photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide?

Calvin Cycle

What are the three limiting factors we saw for photosynthesis?  Which of these is the LEAST likely to pose a problem for plants in our global environment today?

Three limiting factors for photosynthesis were water, temperature, and light intensity. The least likely to pose a problem for plants today is light intensity. 

During the global COVID-19 pandemic, entire nations went into lockdown and people were by and large forced to remain at home.  Interstate and international travel was extremely limited and local movement was restricted to very short essential trips for food and medical treatment.  People were forced to remain home, social distance, and wear masks.

Explain how the following reactants and products of photosynthesis were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions.  Did they increase or decrease?  Why?

CO2 decreased because there was much more photosynthesis occurring because of decreased human activity. There's less people interacting with the environment or harming the plants. For example, diuron on the bottom of boats was used less because people would not be traveling on boats as much. This means that more algae could survive because photosynthesis could occur.

 

O2 would increase because photosynthesis would happen a lot more because there's an increased rate of photosynthesis because humans are harming the environment a lot less. O2 is a waste product of photosynthesis so when it happens more, there's more O2.

 

C6H12O6 increased because there was an increased rate of photosynthesis and the plants can produce glucose without being interrupted by harmful substances.

Which of the following BEST supports the idea that the presence or absence of oxygen determines how much ATP the cell produces from each molecule of glucose it consumes?

If oxygen is present, the pathway the cell uses to break down glucose produces 36 or more ATP, but if it is absent, fermentation will produce lactate or ethanol instead.

What are the four steps in cellular respiration that we studied?

Glycolysis, Transition Reaction, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport Chain

Glycolysis (LOCATION)

outside mitochondria in cytoplasm

Transition Reaction (LOCATION)

inside mitochondrial matrix

Krebs Cycle (LOCATION)

inside mitochondrial matrix

Electron Transport Chain (LOCATION)

inner mitochondrial membrane

the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water

Hydrolysis

first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid             

Glycolysis

reaction that results in the loss of electrons

Oxidation

reaction that results in the gain of electrons

Reduction

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addition of a phosphate group to a molecule

Phosphorylation

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respiration process taking place in the presence of oxygen

Aerobic Respiration

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respiration process taking place with limited or no oxygen available

Anaerobic Respiration

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anaerobic respiration process that takes place in human muscle cells

lactic acid fermentation

anaerobic respiration process that produces ethanol       

alcohol fermentation

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3 carbon compound formed as a product of glycolysis

Pyruvate

While plant photosynthesis produces ________ __and__ _______, animal cell respiration produces__ __ __and__ __ _______

oxygen; glucose; ATP; carbon dioxide

A net total of ____ ATP are created during glycolysis

2

T or F: Temperature is a primary factor in fermentation in the absence of oxygen that produces lactate as a waste product. This occurs primarily in human muscle cells.

True

Products of Glycolysis include:

All of the above (pyruvate, NADH, ATP)

Succinate is an intermediate product of which process?

Citric Acid Cycle

Acetyl CoA and NADH are products of:

Transition Reaction

Describe why the Krebs Cycle is a cycle.  Define the medium, the product entering, and the products that result from the cycle.  What is another name for this process?

The Krebs Cycle is a cycle because it happens on the medium of oxaloacetic acid and starts and ends with this medium. Medium is where the cycle occurs. Oxaloacetic acid is where the NADH and the FADH2 are put together and where ATP and CO2 are given off. Oxaloacetic acid starts and ends this process. This process is also called the citric acid cycle.

Aerobic or Anaerobic:

Makes larger amounts of ATP

Aerobic

Aerobic or Anaerobic:

Cannot take place without oxygen

Aerobic

Aerobic or Anaerobic:

Produces useful byproducts such as yogurt

Anaerobic

Aerobic or Anaerobic:

occurs only in the cytoplasm

Anaerobic

What is another name for the Krebs cycle?

Citric Acid Cycle

What component of the Krebs cycle acts to convert Acetyl CoA to citric acid, and is also the product at the end of the cycle?

oxaloacetic acid

Where does the Krebs cycle take place?

matrix of the mitochondria

What step of cellular respiration takes place between the crista and mitochondrial matrix?

Electron Transport Chain

What steps in cellular respiration is the most productive in terms of energy?

oxidative phosphorylation

A higher concentration of protons outside the inner membrane of the mitochondria than inside the membrane is called a ____________________.  This the driving force behind _____________ synthesis.

gradient; ATP

What is a gradient and why is it important? Gradient in cellular respiration?

The gradient is movement from high concentration to low concentration. This is important because it requires no energy, it drives all biological, chemical, and physical processes, and it is evidence of God's master plan.

 

The gradient in cellular respiration is the proton gradient where there was a higher concentration of H+ outside of the mitochondrial matrix than inside the matrix, so the H+ went into the matrix again through ATP Synthase to reach equilibrium.

The critical enzyme used to facilitate movement of protons across mitochondrial membranes is:

ATP Synthase

What is the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain?

Oxygen

T or F: The Krebs cycle and Electron Transport chain are both anaerobic processes.

False

___________ is the organism most commonly utilized for the commercial applications of fermentation.

Yeast

What are the two types of fermentation?

Alcoholic, lactic acid

What are some of the useful products derived from fermentation?  List five, and what type of fermentation produces it.

Bread rising, bourbon, wine, and hand sanitizer are made from alcoholic (ethanol) fermentation

 

Yogurt and cheese (dairy products) are made by lactic acid fermentation

Write a simple chemical formula for aerobic cellular respiration.

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 > approximately 32 ATP, 6 H2O, 6 CO2

Discuss how the human body can shift itself from aerobic to anaerobic cellular respiration.  What type of anaerobic respiration is used? What are the possible reasons for this to happen?  What are physical effects a person feels when this transition occurs?  Can a human sustain anaerobic respiration for a long period of time?

The human body shifts from aerobic to anaerobic respiration (fermentation) when it is being used a lot and there is not enough access to oxygen. Instead of going to transition reaction, Krebs cycle, and ETC, anaerobic respiration is straight from Glycolysis to fermentation.

Lactic acid fermentation is used

For example, if you are sprinting non stop around the track for long enough, this shift might occur. Any strenuous physical activity that gets to be too much could cause the shift to lactic acid fermentation. This is because the blood cannot deliver enough oxygen for aerobic respiration.

The person would feel muscle cramps and just would not feel very good overall.

We cannot sustain anaerobic respiration for a long period of time because this would lead to organ failure because lactic acid is toxic.

When two alleles are present in a gene, one will be expressed (dominant) and the other will be masked (recessive)

Law of Dominance

Each gene has two alleles which separate into each gamete during meiosis

Law of Segregation