Early and Middle Childhood

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MIDTERM 2

17 Terms

1

What are some elements of a high-quality toy?

  • Simple: easy to understand

  • Interactive: things they can do

  • Open-ended: allows them to use their imagination

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2

What are some skills that children learn and elaborate through play?

Communication, imagination/creativity, self-concept, emotion regulation, and collaboration

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3

The Self

  • Self-concept → description of self

  • Self-esteem → evaluation of self

  • Self-concept develops before self-esteem

  • Early self-descriptions are largely instrumental/behavioral/relational rather than self-evaluative

  • By age 4, child self-descriptions begin to align with parent descriptions, but tend not to be evaluative

  • Lack of social comparison supports positive/neutral evaluations of the self

  • Self-esteem steadily declines beginning in middle childhood and across adolescence before resurging again in early adulthood

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4

Emotion Regulation: Self-Control

  • Inhibitory Control: The ability to inhibit the prepotent (AKA more exciting) response in favor of one that better suits contextual demands and goals

  • Why might inhibitory control be important in early childhood (think age 3-6)? Because you don’t want them to act out around other people. This is around the age where children start preschool, so this can set them up for a bad reputation with their teachers

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5

Delayed Gratification

  • Walter Mischel, 1972 — Standford University

  • Task: wait to eat a marshmallow for 15 minutes in order to earn a second marshmallow

  • Results: 4 to 6-year-old kids who could delay gratification grew up to have better academic and occupational success

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6

How important is delayed gratification?

  • 2018 study: attempt to replicate the original study by Mischel

    • Watts, Duncan, & Quan, 2018

  • Larger, more demographically sample

  • Results

    • Smaller correlation (half the size) between ability to delay gratification during the task and achievement

    • Association decreased even further when controlling for family background and intelligence

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7

Piaget Review

  • Which stage is associated with infancy?

    • Sensorimotor Stage

  • How do children learn and think at this stage?

    • They learn through their senses and actions and think by interacting with their environment

  • In what ways is learning limited?

    • Since they rely on their senses and physical actions to understand the world they cannot reason beyond what they can directly see

  • Which stage is associated with early childhood?

    • Preoperational Stage

  • How do children learn and think at this age?

    • Children learn and think through symbolic representation, using words, pretend play, and images to understand the world around them

  • In what ways is learning limited?

    • Children are unable to take on another’s perspective and only being able to focus on one particular aspect of a situation

  • How does Piaget think about maturation and development?

    • Maturation develops before development

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8

Concrete Operational Stage

  • Typically around ages 7 to 11

  • Achieve mastery of operations

  • “Concrete thinking” = centered on physically reality

  • Abstract and hypotheticals are out of reach

  • Movement between pre- and concrete operational stages is similar to other types of development

    • Vacillating at first, relying on dominant strategy when encountering novelty, eventually moves toward concrete operations all the time

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9

Decentration, Identity, and Conservation

  • Less egocentric, can take multiple aspects of a situation into account (decentration)

  • Schemas become more complex to account for potential changes/transformations/operations

  • Characteristics of objects don’t change if the object is altered (identity), and changing one quality is accounted for by compensations in another (conservation)

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10

Classification

  • Understanding the use of hierarchies, classes, and subclasses

  • Think: roses, daises, and peonies are all types of flowers

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11

Reversibility

  • Transformations on objects can be “undone”

  • If ice melts into water when heated, then water can be frozen into ice when cooled

  • Important for understanding elementary math operations

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12

Seriation

The ability to organize objects by a certain characteristic, like color, length, mass, etc.

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13

Inductive Reasoning

  • Multiple premises believed to be true are combined to reach a conclusion

  • Sometimes called “bottom-up processing”

  • Make broad generalizations out of specific observations

    • I take a candy out of the bag…it’s chocolate. I take another candy out… it’s chocolate. Another candy…chocolate again! All candies must be chocolate

    • First day at the new school, I met two kids who were nice. Everyone at this school must be nice

    • My dad yells a lot when he’s mad. So does my friend’s dad. All dads yell a lot when they’re mad

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14

Lev Vygotsky

  • Russian psychologist, writing around the same time as Piaget

  • Never had any contact with Piaget (communism)

    • His work was suppressed, so we didn’t know a lot about his theories until the 1980’s, when he became very popular in the US

  • Thinking about the same problems from a completely different perspective

    • Conclusions are nearly all in opposition to Piaget’s fundamental thoughts

  • Social constructivist theory

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15

Sociocultural Learning: Mind in Society

  • Learning can never be separated from cultural context: we lean in culture

  • Cognitive capacities are developed in and shaped by the places where children sped time (e.g., home, school church, etc.)

  • Knowledge is created and reinforced through interactions with relative experts and the use of cultural tools

  • Language is a cultural tool! How does language shape development? It provides the tools to express thoughts, emotions, and ideas

  • Speed is Vygotsky’s most important cultural tool

    • Children learn from the speech around them, both socially and solitarily

    • Egocentric/private speech: verbal behavior directed at the self rather than others, with the purpose of enhancing concentration and performance

    • Eventually, speech is internalized

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16

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

  • Vygotsky’s term for the distance between a child’s ability to solve a problem alone and how much better they can do when guided by a more skilled social partner

  • Scaffolding: the process by which more skilled social partners structure tasks to boost children’s performace

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17

Conflicting Thoughts

PIAGET

  • Development precedes learning

    • Children must have reached a certain level of maturity before they can learn certain things

  • Cognitive constructivist

    • Children manipulate their own environment and thus acquire knowledge

    • Teachers inhibit learning by forcing children into a passive role

  • Learning is individual.and stage-like

VYGOTSKY

  • Learning preceds development

    • Children cannot develop/reach the next level of mastery unless they first engage in social learning

  • Social constructivist

    • Children are active in learning through interactions with social partners

    • Teachers enhance learning by scaffolding children and helping them reach the next level of mastery

  • Learning is relational and incremental

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