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All necessary vocab for unit 0 of AP Psychology!!
Perceiving Order in Random Events
People have the eagerness to discover anything unfamiliar to the world that they take any random thing to justify it.
Ex: Hearing “secret messages” in music, many random patterns happen in day to day life than we expect. Some things become so crazy, we don’t believe it. However, with any sample large enough, anything can happen
Scientific Method
A self correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis
Theory
Explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations “A hunch”
Ex: Sleep affects memory is a theory
Hypothesis
Testable predictions, specify what results support the theory v.s what doesn’t
Ex: A good nights rest helps with memory
Operational Definitions
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study
Ex: Sleep deprived can be defined with “x hours less”
Replicate
Repeating the essence of a research study with different participants, materials and circumstances. Replication is a confirmation, getting the same results confides in the findings reliability.
Descriptive Methods
Describe behaviors, often by using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic overstaying
Correlational Methods
Associate different factors, or variables. Variable refers to anything that contributes to a result.
Experimental Methods
Manipulate variables to discover their results
Case Study
Examines are individual or group in depth in hope of revealing things true to us all
Ex: Brain damage: Knowledge of brain damage come from case studies of individuals who suffered impairments of damage tp certain brain regions
Naturalistic Observation
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation. It describes not explain.
Ex: Watching chimpanzee societies in a jungle to videotaping/analyzing parent child interactions in different cultures
Survey
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative
Ex: Reporting happiness of Americans and having results that more than half experienced happiness on the previous day
Sampling Bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. To generalize from a few vivid but unrepresentative cases.
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which sample may be drawn. Does not refer to a country’s whole population.
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Ex: Numbering the names in the general student listing and using a random number generator to pick your survey participants
Convenience Sampling/Samples
Any person for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systemic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability
Ex: Interviewing the first 50 people to exit a door
Falsifiability
The logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis or theory can be shown to be false by own observation or experiment. Argued to be an essential characteristic.
Peer Review
The evaluation of scientific or academic work (similar to replication)
Ex: Research or articles submitted to journals for publication
Quantitive Measures
Research that uses operational measurements and statistical techniques to reach conclusions on the basis of numerical data, such as correlation studies and experiments
Qualitative Measures
Research that does not rely on numerical representation of data, but instead on data that describes qualities or characteristics
Ex: Categories such as “easy”, “medium”, “hot”, “cold” etc
Framing
A type of cognitive bias that occurs when peoples decisions are affected by the way questions are asked or the way information is presented (survey)
Ex: “Do you care about the trees?” 8% said yes “Do you care about botany?” 27% said yes
Social Desirability Bias
Type of response bias when survey respondents provide answers according to societies expectations, rather than their own beliefs or experience (survey)
Self-Report Bias
Type of measurement error that can occur when people are asked to describe their thoughts, feelings, or. behaviors instead of measuring them directly and objectively
Meta-Analysis
Compiling results from many experiments to combine the phenomenon into a single result
Ex: Summarizing bodies of literature, a researcher could conduct a meta-analysis of several studies on the association between self-efficiency and achievement, integrating the findings into an overall correlation
Correlation
When two variables go hand in hand; similar
Correlation Coefficient
Statistical measure, helps us figure how closely two things vary together, and how well either one predicts the other
Ex: How aptitude test scores correlate with school success and can tell us how well scores predict success
Variable
A condition in an experiment or a characteristic of an entity, person, or object, that can take on different categories, levels, or values and that can be measured.
Scatterplots
A graphical representation of the relationship between two continuously measured variables in which one variable is arrayed on each axis and a dot or other symbol is placed at each point where the values of the variables intersect
Illusory Correlation
Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stranger-than-actual relationship
Ex: Gamblers, remembering their lucky rolls, may come to believe they can influence the roll of dice by again throwing gently for low numbers and hard for high numbers
Regression toward the mean
The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) towards the average. The illusion that uncontrollable events correlate with our actions
Ex: Students who score much lower or higher on an exam then they usually do are likely, when retested, to return to their average
Experiment
Research method where an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
Experimental Group
The group exposed to the treatment, to one version of the independent variable
Control Group
The group that does not get treatment
Random Assignment
Assigning participates to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the different groups. Equal chances.
Double Blind Procedure
Where both the researchers and participants have no idea on who received the treatment or a placebo
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent. Basically a control drug that has no effect.
Independent Variable
In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
Confounding Variable
A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a studies results
Dependent Variable
In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
Validity
The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Directionality Problem
(Goes with correlations) The situation in which it is known that two variables are related although it is not known which is cause or effect
Ex: Does a lower GPA add to more hours of video games? or does more hours of video games lead to a lower GPA?
Third-variable problem
If there are two variables, a & b, that are found to be positively or negatively correlated, it does not mean that one causes the other, there might be an unmeasured or unintended third variable causing a random or coincidental relationship between the two variables.
Informed Consent (Part of ethical guidelines)
Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to chose whether they wish to participate
Debriefing (Part of ethical guidelines)
Explain research afterward to participants including only temporary deception
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A committee named by an agency or institution to review research proposals originating within that agency for ethical acceptability and compliance with the organizations code of conduct.
Ethical Guidelines
The ethical standards set forth enforceable rules for conduct as psychologists
Informed assent (Part of ethical guidelines)
Where minors agree to participate in clinical trials, given consent by both parent and child
Protection from harm (Part of ethical guidelines)
Researcher has to minimize risks so participant is not harmed. Work for the benefit of the person.
Confidentiality of Participants (Part of ethical guidelines)
The expectation that info/results will not be shared in any way (can’t talk or write about it) without the participants consent
Deception
Any distortion of withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others. Basically, a researcher who has not disclosed the true purpose of an experiment to a participant engaged in deception.
Confederates
In an experiment situation, an aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment
Descriptive Statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of control tendency and measures of variation.
Histogram
A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Measure of Central Tendency
A single score that represents a whole set of scores
Mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then diving by the number of scores
Median
The middle scene in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below
Skewed Distribution
A representation of scores that lack symmetry and their average value
Measured of Variation
How similar or diverse the scores are
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal Curve (Normal Distribution)
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
Bimodal Distributions
No clear pattern, two peaks or two humps (modes)
Statistical Significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Inferential Statistics
Numerical data that allows one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Effect Size
Effect size is not the same as statistical significance, statistical significance tells how likely it is that a result is due to chance, and effect size tells you how important the result is. They allow for the computation of summary statistics that apply to all the studies considered as a whole.(.2 effect size is small, .5 is medium, .8+ is large)
Cognitive Biases
Distortions in thinking that may be illogical or improbable. Like how people are scared of planes but they get in a car which has more accidents than a plane does.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to gather evidence that confirms pre-existing expectations
Ex: if you tell yourself things will get better, your brain will search for evidence to support that
Hindsight Bias
The tendency, after na event as occurred, to overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen
Ex: “I knew he should’ve…” ‘I saw that coming from a mile away!”
Overconfidence
A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of ones actual ability to perform a task successfully, by a belief that ones performance is better than that of others, or by excessive certainty in the accuracy of ones beliefs.
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