Psychology Chapter 9

Cognitive psychology

Is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. ____ strive to determine and measure different types of intelligence, why some people are better at problem solving than others, and how emotional intelligence affects success in the workplace, among countless other topics.

Concepts

In order to organize the staggering amount of information, the mind has developed a “file cabinet” of sorts in the mind. The different files stored in the file cabinet are called ___. ___ are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences

Prototypes

Another technique of concept (cognitive psychology) was used by your brain to organize information is the identification of ___ for the concepts you have developed. A ___ is the best example or representation of a concept

Types of concepts for cognitive psychology

Natural

Artifical

Natural Concept-Coginitive Psychology

Are created “naturally” through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences (IE;:Snow)

Artifical Concept-Cognitive Psychology

Is a concept that is defined by a specific set of characteristics. Various properties of geometric shapes, like squares and triangles, serve as useful examples of ___ concepts. A triangle always have three angles and three sides.

Schemata

Mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts.

There are many different types of ____, and they all have one thing in common: ____- are a method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently. When a ___ is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed

Role Schema

Makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave

Event Scheme

Is a set of behaviours that can feel like a routine. Think about what you do when you walk into an elevator

Cognitive Script

Another word for Event Schema.

Is a set of behaviours that can feel like a routine. Think about what you do when you walk into an elevator

Language

A communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another.

_____be, if spoken, signed, or written has specific components: a lexicon and grammer

Lexicon

Refers to the words of a given language, thus ___is a language’s vocabulary

Grammer

Refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon

Phoneme

Words are formed by combining the various ____ that made up the language.

A ___ (eg: the sounds “ah” vs “eh”) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different set of ___

Morphemes

Phonemes are combined to form _____, which are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning

Semantics

Refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

Syntax

Refers to the way words are organized into sentences

How children learn languages

Psychological theories of language learning differ in terms of the importance they place on nature versus nurture. Yet, it is clear that both matter.

The most straightforward explanation of language development is that it occurs through principles of learning, including association, reinforcement and the observation of others.

Languages cannot be entirely learned

For one, children learn words too fast for them to be learned through reinforcement. Between the ages of 18 months and five years, children learn up to 10 new words everyday. More importantly, language is more generative than it is imitative

Generativity

Refers to the fact that speakers of a language can compose sentences to represent new ideas that they have never before been exposed to

The nature approach to language

The linguist Noam Chomsky is a believer in _______, arguing that human brains contain a language acquisition device that includes a universal Grammer that underlies all human language. According to this approach, each of the many languages spoken around the world (there are between 6,000 and 8,000) is an individual example of the same underlying set of procedures that are hardwired into human brains. Chomsky’s account proposes that children are born with a knowledge of general rules of syntax that determine how sentences are constructed.

Although there is general agreement among psychologists that babies are genetically programmed to learn language, there is still debate about Chomsky’s idea that there is a universal Grammer that can account for all language learning.

Stage 1-Language and Communication Development

Age-From birth. Development language and communication-Crying

Stage 2-Language and Communication Development

Age-0-6 months. Development language and communication-Cooing

Stage 3-Language and Communication Development

Age-5/6 months. Development language and communication-Babbling

Stage 4-Language and Communication Development

Age-12-18 months. Development language and communication-One word utterances

Stage 5-Language and Communication Development

Age-18-24. Development language and communication- Two word utterances

Stage 6-Language and Communication Development

Age-2-3 years. Development language and communication-Sentence Phase

Stage 7-Language and Communication Development

Age-3-5 years. Development language and communication-Complex Sentences; has conservations

Problem solving strategy

A _____is a plan of action used to find a solution

Problem solving strategies methods

Trail & Error

Algorithm

Heuristic

Trial and Error- Problem solving strategies methods

Description-Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved

Example-Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off Bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning

Algorithm-Problem solving strategies methods

Description-Step-by-step problem-solving formula

Example-Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer

Heuristic-Problem solving strategies methods

Description-General problem-solving framework

Example-Working backwards: breaking a task into steps

Pitsfalls to problem solving

Mental set

Functional fixedness

Anchoring bias

Confirmation bias

Hindsight bias

Representativeness heuristic

Availability heuristic

Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning

Mental set

Is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now

Functional fixedness

Is a type of mental set where you cannot percieve an object being used for something other than what it was designed for

Anchoring bias

Occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem

Confirmation bias

Is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs

Hindsight bias

Leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t

Representativeness heuristic

Describes a faulty way of thinking in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or something

Availability heuristic

Is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific observations. For example, a person’s opinion that cramming for a test increases performance may be based on her own memory of passing an exam after pulling an all-night study session

Deductive reasoning

Starts with general principles that are applied to specific instances (the reverse of inductive reasoning)

Intelligence

The way that researchers have defined the concept of ____ has been modified many times since birth of psychology

Capacity for rational thought, purposeful action, and effective adaptation

Different Intelligences

Crystal intelligence

Fluid Intelligence

Triarchic theory of intelligece

Crystal Intelligence

Is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using _____

Fluid intelligence

Encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your _____

Triarchic theory of intelliegnce

Robert Sternberg developed another theory of intelligence, which he titled the ____ because it seems intelligence as comprised of three parts:

Practical Intelligence

Analytical Intelligence

Creative Intelligence

Practical intelligence-Triarchic theory of intelliegnce

Sometimes compared to “Street Smarts”. Being practical means you find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences

Analytical intelligence-Triarchic theory of intelliegnce

Is closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations

Creative intelligence-Triarchic theory of intelliegnce

Is marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situations

Multiple Intelligence theory

Was developed by Howard Gardner. In Gardner’s theory, each person possesses eight intelligence. Among these eight intelligence, a person typically excels in some and falters in others.

Multiple Intelligence types

Linguistic

Logical Mathematical

Music

Bodily Kinesthetic

Spaital

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Naturalist

Linguistic Intelligence-Multiple Intelligence types

Characteristics-Percieves different functions of language, different sounds and meanings of words, may easily learn multiple languages

Representative Career-Journalist, novelist, poet and teacher

Logical-Mathematical intelligence-Multiple Intelligence types

Characteristics-Capable of seeing numerical patterns, strong ability to use reason and logic

Representative Career-Scientist and mathematician

Bodily Kinesthetic intelligence-Multiple Intelligence types

Characteristics-High ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to perform various physical tasks

Representative Career-Dancer, athlete, athletic coach, and yoga instructor

Spaital Intelligence- Multiple Intelligence types

Characteristics-Ability to percieve the relationship between objects and how they move in space

Representative Career-Choreographer, sculoptor, architect, aviator and sailor

Interpersonal intelligence-Multiple Intelligence types

Characteristics-Ability to understand and be sensitive to the various emotional states of others

Representative Career-Counselor, social worker and salesperson

Intrapersonal Intelligence-Multiple Intelligence types

Characteristics-Ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to direct behaviour and reach personal goals

Representative Career-Key component of personal success over time

Naturalist Intelligence-Multiple Intelligence types

Characteristics-High capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species within it

Representative Career-Biologist, ecologist and environmentalist

Emotional Intelligence

Gardner’s inter- and intrapersonal intelligences are often combined into a single type:_____. ___ encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways

Cultural intelligences

Intelligence can also have different meanings and values in different cultures. When you visit such a creature, how well you relate to the values of that culture exemplifies your _____, sometimes referred to as cultural competence

Cattell-Horn-Carrikl (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities

The most comprehensive theory of intelligence to date is _____. In this theory, abilities are related and arranged in a hierarchy with general abilities at the top, broad abilities in the middle, and narrow (specific) abilities at the bottom. The narrow abilities are the only ones that can be directly measured; however, they are integrated within the other abilities. At the general level is general intelligence. Next, the broad level consists of general abilities such as fluid reasoning, short-term memory, and possessing speed. Finally, as the hierarchy continues, the narrow level includes specific forms of cognitive abilities. For example, short-term memory would further break down into memory span and working memory capacity.

Creativity

___is the ability to generate, create or discover new ideas, solutions and possibility. ___is often assessed as a function of one's ability to engage in divergent thinking.

Divergent thinking

____Can be described as thinking “outside the box;” it allows an individual to arrive at unique, multiple solutions to a given problem.

Convergent thinking

In contrast to divergent thinking, ____describes the ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem

Measures of intelligence

IQ stands for intelligence quotient and describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence. You’ve already learned that there are many ways psychologists describe intelligence (or more aptly, intelligences). Similarity, IQ tests-the tools designed to measure intelligence-have been the subjects of debate throughout their development and use

Reliable intelligence testing

(___refers to a test’s ability to produce consistent results) began in earnest during the early 1900s with a researcher named Alfred Binet

American researchers soon realized the value of such testing:Louis Terman, a Stanford professor, modified Binet’s work by standardizing the administration of the test and tested thousands of different-aged children to establish an average score for each age.

As a result, the test was normed and standardized

Standarization

Means that the manner of administration, scoring and interpretation of results is consistent.

Norming

Involves giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups such as age groups. The resulting data provide norms, or referential scores, by which to interpret future scores

Intelligence tests

There are three _____ credited to Wechsler, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-fourth edition, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence

Flynn Effect

Refers to the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last. ____ himself argues, however, that increased IQ scores do not necessarily mean that younger generations are more intelligent per se

Bell curve

The results of intelligence tests follow the ____, a graph in the general shape of a bell. When the ____ is used in psychological testing, the graph demonstrates a normal distribution of a trait, in this case, intelligence, in the human population. Many human traits naturally follow the ___.

Representation sample

Is a subset of the population that accurately represents the general population

Standard deviations

Describes how data are dispersed in a population and give context to large data sets. The bell curve uses the ______to show how all scores are dispersed from the average score

Modern testing

In ___IQ testing, one standard deviation is 15 points. So a score of 85 would be described as “one standard deviation below the mean”. How would you describe a score of 115 and a score of 70? Any IQ score that falls within one standard deviation above and below the mean (between 85 and 115) is considered average, and 68% of the population has IQ scores in this range. An IQ score of 130 or above is considered a superior level. Consistent with the bell curve, about 2% of the population falls into this category. People are considered gifted if they have an IQ score of 130 or higher, or superior intelligence in a particular area

Intellectual disability Sub type in measures of intelligence

Only 2.2% of the population has an IQ score between 70. A score of 70 or below indicated significant cognitive delays. When these are combined with major deficits in adaptive functions, a person is diagnosed with having an intellectual disability. There are four subtypes: Mild, moderate, severe and profound

Mild-Intellectual disability Sub type

Percentage of population with Intellectual disabilities-85%

Description-3rd to 6th-grade level in reading, writing and math;may be employed and hire independently

Moderate-Intellectual disability Sub type

Percentage of population with Intellectual disabilities-10%

Description-Basic reading and writing skills; functional self-care skills; requires some oversight

Severe-Intellectual disability Sub type

Percentage of population with Intellectual disabilities-5%

Description-Functional self-care skills; requires oversight of daily environment and activities

Profound-Intellectual disability Sub type

Percentage of population with Intellectual disabilities-1%

Description-May be able to communicate verbally or non verbally; requires intensive oversight

Nature (genetics) Intelligence

The Minnesota study of twins reared apart is one of the most well-known twin studies. In this investigation, researchers found that identical twins raised together and identical twins raised apart exhibit a higher correlation between their IQ scores them siblings or fraternal twins raised together. The findings from this study reveal a genetic component to intelligence

Nurture (environment) Intelligence

At the same time, other psychologists believe that intelligence is shaped by a child’s developmental environment. If parents were to provide the children with Intellectual stimuli from before they are born, it is likely that they would absorb the benefits of the stimulus and it would be reflected in intelligence levels

The source of intelligence

The reality is that aspects of each idea are probably correct

Range of Reaction

Is the theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on their genetic makeup. According to this idea, your genetic potential is a fixed quantity, bur whether you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood.

Adoption studies, Orphanage studies and Issues with IQ tests and race