AP Psychology Unit 3

Developmental Psychology introduces methods to research and understand how people develop over lifespans, and how psychobiological factors impact this. Furthermore, there's a lot of studies to understand the terms in this topic

Chronological Development

Focused on age/stage-based development, specific (EX: Puberty, adulthood, etc.)

Thematic Development

Focuses on overall patterns, more general (EX: identity formation, coping skills)

Stability vs Change

The dissonance between if traits change the same over a period of time or if they shift. Stable: self-regulation; Changes: social roles, emotional maturity

Nature vs Nurture

The dissonance between if we’re influenced by biological factors or by environmental ones (neither side works alone, they both work together to shape one’s identity)

Continous vs. Discontinuous Development

Is development gradual or broken up into stages?

Continious: no clear steps

Discontinious: development in separate stages

Cross-Sectional Studies

Compares age groups at a fixed point in time; tracks at one point which results may be weakened based on societal differences (cohort effects). Furthermore, it won’t track change over time

Longitudinal Studies

Follows the same individuals over a longer time period to track changes over time. It shows developmental change better but it may be time-consuming and participants may drop out (ethics are upheld)

Teratogens

Harmful substances like drugs may impact fetal development

Maternal Conditions

if the mother is sick or stressed it will impact the child

Down Syndrome

A genetic disorder where there’s an extra chromasome, an example of a genetic factor affecting fetal development

Hormonal Factors

Imbalances in thyroid/cortisol can impact fetal development

Environmental Inputs

Nutrition and chemical exposures impact how the child forms; as well as access to healthcare and other social factors

Cephalocaudal

Ceph means head; this means the development from head to toe

Proximodistal

Proximity means close-by; this is the development from the center to outwards

Gross Motor Skills

Large movements (crawling, running)

Fine Motor skills

Precise movements (writing, grasping)

Pincer Grasp

Holding something with a thumb and a forefinger, signals healthy development

Rooting

Turns head when cheek is touched

Moro

Startle Reflex that children have

Palmer Grasp

Baby grasps objects when they’re placed in the palm

Visual Cliff Experiment

An experiment that proves that children can percieve depth at 6-8 months. Depth perception is redefined

Critical Periods

Essential experiences must occur for normal development; they may not develop later on (EX: vision, first language, attachment styles)

Sensitive Periods

Best time to learn a skill, though they can be learned later on (EX: second language)

Primary Puberty Characteristics

Maturing reproductive organs

Secondary Puberty Characteristics

Secondary changes (body, hair, voice change)

Menarche

First menustration in girls

Prefrontal Cortex

Takes the longest time to develop, not fully developed in puberty

Limbic System

Emotions mature earlier in these areas; explains risk-taking

Adulthood

Early: brain and mind matures, strongest; Middle: weight gain, decline into late, menopause occurs; Late: greater reductions in strength, cognitive decline and lower fertility

S3x

Biological classifications on a basis of anatomy and chromosomes; recognize that there are variations on a basis of other conditions

Gender

Socially constructed norms on a basis of s3x; freedom for gender expression varies across cultures. Gender identity = feeling vs. Gender expression = presenting self

S3xual Orientation

Enduring romantic/s3xual attraction

Brain plasticity

Allows for experiences to reshape development

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Kids learn gender behaviors by watching and experiencing reinforcement

Gender Schema Theory

Kids develop schemas about specific genders; or they notice and remember information that fits into specific categories

Object permeance

things exist even when out of sight (18-24 months old, sensorimotor)

Theory of Mind

Understanding that people have different thoughts and feelings (2-7 years old, preoperational stage)

Egocentrism

Can’t see others’ perspectives (2-7 years old, preoperational stage)

Animism

Believing that objects have feelings (2-7 years old, preoperational stage)

Conservation

Quantity is the same even if it changes in shape (7-11 years old, concrete operational stage)

Reversibility

Being able to mentally undo actions (7-11 years old, concrete operational stage)

Classification

Grouping objects by features (7-11 years old, concrete operational stage)

Seriation

Arranging objects in order (7-11 years old, concrete operational stage)

Formal Operational Stage (12+)

Capable of abstract, hypothetical, and systematic thinking

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range betweens what kids can do alone vs. what they need help on

Scaffolding

Support or guidance that helps a learner move through ZPD (not known to known)

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge gained from experience and usually stays/improves with age

Fluid intelligence

Solving new problems and thinking quickly, able to form new skills, declines gradually with adulthood

Dementia

Severe, abnormal decline in thinking; Alzheimer’s is the most common form of this.

Grammar/Syntax

The structure of language: Grammar = logical rule system for language; Syntax = the way words are arranged

Generative

Language can be infinitely applied to create new ideas and sentences

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound in a language; NOT the same as a letter but mostly sounds like ch, c, ca

Free morphemes

Stand alone, smallest units that can carry meaning

Bound morphenes

Stand alone, smallest units that modify meaning but do not exist on their own; usually to dictate tenses

Semantics

The study of meaning in a language (word meaning)

Cooing

Language stage from 2-4 months, vowel sounds

Babbling

6-10 months: cosonant vowel sounds

One word stage

12-18 months: single words represent larger meanings

Holophrastic Speech

When a single word holds a complex meaning

Telegraphic Speech (Two Word Phrase)

Begins at 18-24 months; basic combos with essential content + no grammar

Overgeneralization

Applying language rules too broadly (EX: saying I goed)

Overextension

Using one word for similar things (EX: saying doggy to a cat)

Underextension

Using a word too narrowly (EX: car only means the family’s own car)

Fast mapping

Quickly linking a new word with its meaning after minimal exposure

Microsystem

Direct interaction someone has with family, teachers, sports teams

Mesosystems

the connections between different microsystems, like parent-teacher meetings, friendship dynamics

Exosystems

Indirect influences (neighborhood safety, local policies)

Macrosystem

Cultural context (religious influences, political systems)

Chronosystem

Timing and life stage (Puberty, societal shifts)

Authoritarian

Strict parenting and less support with demanding behavior and more consequences (obedience built but children lack social skills)

Authoritative

Balancing structure and warmth, usually promotes most independence and better long-term outcomes

Permissive

Nice but less development, low demand and a lot of support (leads to poor self-regulation)

Secure Attachment

Child is safe to explore and can comfort and is comforted easily

Avoidant (Insecure) Attachment

Avoids closeness nearly completely

Anxious (Insecure) Attachment

Clingy and hard to soothe

Disorganized (Insecure) Attachment

Erratic behavior, response conflicts

Harlow’s Monkey Study

Monkeys choose comfort over food every time

Parallel Play

Playing side-to-side as toddlers teaches them how to get along with each other; peers interact in different ways

Imaginary Audience

Worry of being percieved/watched

Personal fable

Assuming that no one can relate to your struggles

Social Clock

Cultural timeline for when “normal” development should occur in adults (marriage, career, children)

Emerging Adulthood

A unique life stage in the 20s (mostly in the west) where identity is explored through careers and relationships

Trust v Mistrust

In infancy, children need to learn who to trust and who to not

Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt

As toddlers, they must be encouraged or shamed, shaping their attachment and confidence

Initiative vs Guilt

In early childhood, children’s creativity will be stifled or encouraged

Industry vs Inferiority

School age children are between being compared and being validated (a child’s self-esteem must be built)

Identity vs Role Confusion

Teens must choose between taking a set path that is influenced by other factors or between choosing for themselves; overall they work with finding identity

Intimacy vs Isolation

Young adults must learn how to balance relationships or take an independent path

Generativity vs Stagnation

Midlife is when the person advances or stays forward

Integrity v Despair

In late adulthood, people struggle with regret vs trying to go forward regardless

Adeverse Childhood Experiences (ACE)

Early negative experiences of abuse, neglect, addiction, divorce, etc; that can negatively shape how people form relationships, regulate themselves, and cope

Identity Achievement

Exploring and committing to an identity

Moratorium

Exploring an identity but not yet committed to it

Foreclosure

Committing an identity without exploring it (often influenced by others rather than based on exploration)

Identity Diffusion

No exploration or committment (diffusion)

Classical Conditioning

A type of associative learning based on how we associate certain actions with responses; aka learned reaction

Pavlov’s Dog

An experiment where a dog was trained to respond to a stimulus in a certain way depending on how certain variables were changed. Know how to apply all vocabulary to this specific experiement

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Any stimulus that triggers a natural response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Automatic response TO UCS

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Initially doesn’t cause a reaction