Approaches to Research

Quantitative methods

the investigation of data empirically using numerical variables

Qualitative methods

the investigation of open-ended material and narratives by researchers or raters who describe dominant themes that emerge in the data

experiments

a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact

field experiments

done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables).

quasi-experiments

studies in which the researcher lacks complete control over the scheduling of treatments or must assign respondents to treatments in a nonrandom manner

natural experiments

conducted in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the participants, but here the experimenter has no control over the independent variable as it occurs naturally in real life. ... Limitation: There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results.

Correlational studies

a type of non-experimental research method in which a researcher measures two variables, understands and assesses the statistical relationship between them with no influence from any extraneous variable

case studies

in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods

Naturalistic observations

a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists. This technique involves observing involves studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.

interview

a directed conversation in which a researcher, therapist, clinician, employer, or the like intends to elicit specific information from an individual for purposes of research, diagnosis, treatment, or employment.

research design

the specific method a researcher uses to collect, analyze, and interpret data

independent variable

the variable in an experiment that is specifically manipulated or is observed to occur before the dependent, or outcome, variable, in order to assess its effect or influence. Independent variables may or may not be causally related to the dependent variable.

dependent variable

the outcome that is observed to occur or change after the occurrence or variation of the independent variable in an experiment, or the effect that one wants to predict or explain in correlational research

replication

a term referring to the repetition of a research study, generally with different situations and different subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be applied to other participants and circumstances

Hypothesis

an empirically testable proposition about some fact, behavior, relationship, or the like, usually based on theory, that states an expected outcome resulting from specific conditions or assumptions.

random sampling

a process for selecting a sample of study participants from a larger potential group of eligible individuals, such that each person has the same fixed probability of being included in the sample and some chance procedure is used to determine who specifically is chosen

Convenience sampling

any process for selecting a sample of individuals or cases that is neither random nor systematic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability. Interviewing the first 50 people to exit a store is an example

opportunity sampling

Uses people from target population available at the time and willing to take part. It is based on convenience

Volunteer sampling

a sampling technique where participants self-select to become part of a study because they volunteer when asked, or respond to an advert.

Purposive sampling

sampling method that focuses on very specific characteristics of the units or individuals chosen

snowball sampling

a technique to identify and recruit candidates for a study in which existing participants recommend additional potential participants, who themselves are observed and asked to nominate others, and so on until a sufficient number of participants is obtained

Standarization

refers to the process in which procedures used in research are kept the same. Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical, so that methods are sensitive to any change in performance.

ethical consideration

refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm

independent measures

also known as between-groups, is an experimental design where different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants.

repeated measure

an experimental design where the same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of participants.

Inductive content analysis

a qualitative method of content analysis that researchers use to develop theory and identify themes by studying documents, recordings and other printed and verbal material

Reliability and Validity

Techniques for evaluating the relationship between measured and conceptual variables

credibility

refers to the believability and reliability of information received from outside sources.

bias

partiality: an inclination or predisposition for or against something

causation

the empirical relation between two events, states, or variables such that change in one (the cause) brings about change in the other (the effect).

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Generalization

the process of deriving a concept, judgment, principle, or theory from a limited number of specific cases and applying it mor

Transferability for qualitative research

Findings from a study can be transferred to settings and/or populations outside the study only if the findings of a particular study are corroborated by findings of similar studies (for example, in multiple case studies).

triangulation

the process of confirming a hypothesis by collecting evidence from multiple sources