ANTH 168 CH 1-4

Genotype frequencies

genotype/total population

Allele frequencies

number of observed alleles/total pool of alleles

Key Mutational Difference (LUCA)

Mutation is the original source of all genetic variation… not all mutations are bad! they can even be good.

The Five Forces of Evolution

Mutation, genetic drift, genetic flow (gene flow), natural selection, non-random mating

Point mutation

substitution/insertion/deletion of a single nucleotide base in DNA

Synonymous/silent mutation

does not alter resulting amino acid/protein

Non-synonymous (nonsense, missense)

alters resulting amino acid/protein

Insertions/deletions (INDELs)

errors that occur in replications when a nucleotide is duplicated or skipped

Frameshift effect

INDELs cause the readings frame to shift and all downstream codons from the INDEL to be misread

Transposable elements (transposons)

fragments of DNA that jump around the genome

Retrotransposons

DNA → RNA

Crossover events

DNA swapped between homologous chromosomes during meiosis I, creating a new combination of alleles

Nondisjunction events

chromosomes fail to separate (trisomies)

Chromosomal translocations

transfer of DNA between non-homologous chromosomes, two types: balanced so no loss of information, or unbalanced, which leads to duplication or deletion

Genetic Drift

Random changes in allele frequencies

Population Bottlenecks

number of individuals in a population dramatically drops due to a random event, leading to frequency of alleles reasonably changes due to low populations

Mass Extinction Events

example of a population bottleneck, extreme loss of genetic diversity due to a sudden event (ex: toba erruption)

Founder Effect

group of individuals break away from main group, taking a subset of alleles to another location, and therefore removing it from the gene pool

Runs of Homozygosity (ROH)

Long ROHs in recently inbred populations… shorter indicates historical bottlenecks and founder events. Global ROH averages support several founding events throughout modern human evolution (OOA)

Admixture

gene flow in humans

Hybridization

gene flow in non-human populations

• Ex1: Scutellata Honey Bees – cross-breeding african and european bees to better adapt to tropical environments. These hybrids are more aggressive

• Ex2: Harlequin Ladybeetle – ummm they just like keep breeding with ladybugs and then no founding populations survive and then it keeps going and going

Natural Selection

Certain phenotypes confer an advantage or disadvantage in survival and/or reproductive success (white moths)

Directional Selection

one extreme of the trait is favored (ex: resistant bacterial strains)

Balancing Selection

genetic diversity is actively preserved (ex: sickle cell anemia, heterozygous has more fitness/resistance, homozygous no)

Diversifying

intermediate traits are selected against (ex: large and small fish are good, medium fish die)

Sexual Selection

certain traits are carried down generations for being appealing or preferred to the opposite sex

Non-random (assortative) mating

mate choice follows a specific pattern

Positive assortative mating

mate choice is based on similar phenotypes

Negative assortative mating

mate choice is based on different phenotypes

Artificial selection

humans intentionally choose which individuals mate

Species

organisms whose individuals are biologically and behaviorally compatible and able to breed viable, fertile offspring (this means they must be able to survive for a reasonable amount of time)

Subspecies

regionally distinct subpopulations of a species

Microevolution

changes in allele frequencies within a single species

Macroevolution

changes that result in new species, bigger effect

Allopatric Speciation

a geographic barrier prevents gene pool mixing and eventually speciation (two separate populations)

Sympatric Speciation

a change within one population eventually creates speciation (mutations, allele change, etc.)

Peripatric Speciation

small isolated population speciates

Parapatric

adjacent populations diverge but still exchange some genes

Rapid mutation and selective sweeps

evolution occurring within a single host rapidly (bacterial resistance)

Adaptive Radiation

subgroups of a single species rapidly diversify and adapt to fill various ecological niches

Ecological niche

set of constraints and resources available in an environment

The Cambrian Explosion

when multicell organisms just boomed in i guess

anthropology

the study of humans

culture relativism

try to understand other cultures w/o judgement, through their POV

Holism

how aspects intersect and influence one another

Comparison

compare and contrast ideas

Dynamism

compare changes over time

Fieldwork

collect data in the field

Primatology

Anatomy, behaviour, ecology, and genetics of living and extinct nonhuman primates

Paleoanthropology

evolution of human ancestors from a distant past, fossilised remains used to create an evolutionary tree

Bioarchaeology

interested in the lives of the deceased (in cemeteries) using artifacts and personal information. A good way to discover cultural differences

Molecular Anthropology

concerned with genetics– commonly in the lab, extracting DNA, sequencing to compare populations

Forensic Anthropology

get contracted by law enforcement to work for them, or perform research, investigations

Human Biology

interested in environmental-physiological interactions, nutrition, culture (based on biological factors)

Life first appeared…

3.8 million years ago

How many extinct events have there been?

6, counting right now

Distinct Primate Features include…

flat nails, a large brain-to-body ratio, complex social-behavior, forward-facing eyes, opposable thumbs, and grasping hands

Hypothesis

addresses a narrow set of phenomena

Theory

addresses a wide range of phenomena, reliable if it stands the test of time and is supported by many lines of evidence

Law

a prediction about what will happen given certain conditions, no explanation

Sedimentary DNA

taking sections of dirt from the ground to assess the chronological history of the past residents who inhabited that space

Homo luzonesis

located in the late Pleistocene Luzon Cave, Philippines, had existed at the same time as us

LiDAR Surface Reconnaissance

light detection and ranging, used in archaeological surveys, Can map dense jungle and forest that can’t be traversed on foot

Forensic Genomics

Revolutionised the field using next-generation sequencing, very fast and can sequence many DNA at once, good for SNP profiling for forensic genealogy analysis

Paleoproteomics can be used for…

useful for determining diet through dental formulas and proteins present in teeth (2S albumin)

Ethnocentrism

using one’s cultural point of view to explain other cultural phenomena ex: religion nationality (Also plays a big role in interpretations of the past)

The Theory of the Four Elements

Says that everything in the universe is composed of fire, air, earth, and water

Thales

Proposed that the world floated on water and water was the ultimate substance (arche)

Anaximenes

Claimed that the wind was the fundamental element, and that nature was ruled by laws: anything chaotic wouldn’t last long (similar to Darwin's concepts)

Heraclitus

Fire is the fundamental element, Famous for claiming that change is the fundamental essence of the universe

Empedocles

Unification of all four elements– unchanging and the root of the universe, believed in proto-evolution

proto-evolution

the world started in a jumble of limbs, and the adaptable survived

Democritus

• Everything is made out of atoms

• Early humans foraged and stuck together to defend against animals, and language was created over time to communicate

Socrates

“Know thyself”: think for yourself, question everything

Aristotle

Assigned hierarchies to nature and created a classification system for animals, also didn’t believe that the world was divine

Al-Jahiz

Book of Animals; Created a conception of evolution by suggesting that nature and biological struggle play a role in the success of animals (natural selection)

Ibn Al-Haymen

Used experiments to verify his theories (scientific method) Laws of reflection and refraction– contributed heavily to optics, math, astronomy

The Great Chain of Being by Diego Valades

The hierarchy of the order of nature: God > Angels > Humans > Animals > Plants > Minerals (religious overtones again)

Francis Bacon

created the scientific method, but through observations (teeth and horses)

John Ray

created species, classified plants based on similarity and differences, with a notion of ‘common ancestor’

Carolus Linnaeus

taxonomy, binomial nomenclature

A Taxonomy of Life

The system developed by Linnæus to name and organise living things, Each organism has a two-part scientific name, Helps scientists standardise naming, compare organisms, and study evolutionary relationships

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

• Comparative anatomy

• Provides inroads to understanding relationships between species (verterbrates)

Georges Cuvier

Fossil records provide evidence of earlier life, but thought animals go extinct bc of prototypes of perfection. Moves towards the demonstration of extinction, or catastrophism

• Challenges biblical order

• Thinks flood killed off the animals so fossil record layer appears

Archbishop James Ussher

claimed the Earth was only 6029 years old because of the Bible

REAL age of the earth

4.3 billion years old

James Hutton

• Uniformitarianism: deep time

• Gradual, deposition events shape the earth

Charles Lyell

• Law of superposition: the bottom layer of Earth is the oldest, and so on

Applies to UNDISTURBED soil (strata)

also geology is more of science than just observation (empirical)

Steno’s Law of Superposition

• Top younger, bottom older

• Disruptions interpreted in relation

Catastrophism

fast, high-impact events, e.g., floods

Uniformitarianism

slow, the world continues to form by geological processes

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics: physical changes during life are passed onto offspring

Mice Tail Docking Experiment

disproved Lamarck’s theory: no matter how many mice had their tails docked, their offspring would have perfectly healthy tails

Lamarckism

soft inheritance, refers to his theory that physical changes during an organism’s lifetime will be carried into their offspring

Orthogenesis

species evolve towards a goal; teleology (not true!)

Thomas Malthus

“Carrying capacity” populations grow exponentially, while crops/food supply grow arithmetically

Charles Darwin

his ideas dominate evolutionary thoughts, but they are built on previous ones

Darwin’s Journey

he traveled the world by boat and realized that Cuvier’s thinking (main paradigm) was false

Paradigm Shift

found fossilized armadillos but also extant (alive) ones so surely not… also geographic variations existed in S. Africa

Alfred Russel Wallace

boat caught fire lol but also noticed geographic differences in fauna, and that color is a warning of danger