h e l p

muscles of facial expression

orbicularis oculi and oris, zygomaticus, buccinator

muscles of mastication and tongue movement

masseter, temporalis, buccinator, pterygoids, glossus

muscles of anterior neck and throat

suprahyoid, infrahyoid, pharyngeal

muscles of neck and vertebral column

sternocleidomastoid, scalene, splenius, erector spinae, semispinalis, quadratus lumborum

muscles of respiration

intercostals, diaphragm

muscles of abdominal wall

obliques, transverse abdominis, rectus abdominis

muscles of pelvic floor

levator ani, coccygeus, transverse perineal muscles

muscles of anterior thorax

pectoralis minor, serratus anterior

muscles of posterior thorax

trapezius, levator scapulae

muscles of shoulder and elbow joint

pectoralis major, deltoid, biceps brachii, brachialis, latissimus dorsi, triceps brachii

muscles of anterior forearm

pronator teres, flexor carpi, flexor digitorum, pronator quadratus, flexor pollicis

muscles of posterior forearm

extensor carpi, extensor digitorum, supinator, extensor pollicis/indicis

muscles of hand

digiti minimi, digitorum, lumbrical, pollicis

muscles of anterior and medial right thigh

iliopsoas, quadriceps femoris, adductors

muscles of posterior right hip and thigh

gluteus max, min, med, hamstrings

muscles of anterior compartment right leg

tibialis anterior, fibularis, extensor digitorum/hallucis

muscles of lateral compartment right leg

fibularis

muscles of posterior compartment right leg

triceps surae, popliteus, tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum/hallucis

muscles of foot

adductor hallucis, flexor hallucis brevis, flexor digiti minimi brevis

bones of upper limb

scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges

carpal bones (l-m)

proximal row: scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, pisiform distal: trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate

bones of lower limbs

ilium, ischium, pubis, femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges

ribosomes

site of protein synthesis, assembly line

endoplasmic reticulum

produce proteins and lipids

golgi apparatus

sorts rough er product, packing and shipping

ventral

belly

dorsal

back

lateral

outer

distal

further from origin

frontal plane

separates anterior and posterior

transverse plane

separates superior and inferior

sagittal plane

separates along midline

fibroblast

cell found in skin that connects/covers

erythrocyte

red blood cell for gas exchange

epithelial cell

covering cells found in organs

skeletal cell

attached to bones, moves body parts

smooth muscle cell

found in organs, controls involuntary movements

macrophage

fight disease

neuron

gathers information

epithelial tissue

covering, found in endocrine glands

nervous tissue

for control, found in spinal cord

membranes

combine epithelial sheet and underlying connective tissue

serous membrane

lines closed cavities

connective tissue components

support fibers, extracellular matrix

collagen fibers

resist tension, strongest

reticular fibers

bundles of special cartilage

elastic fibers

contain elastin, recoil after stretching

ground substance

produced by tissue’s primary cell type, gel-like and holds tissue fluid (except blood, doesn’t produce plasma)

hypodermis

deep to dermis, mostly adipose tissue with areolar

skin and hypodermis fucntions

protection, temp regulation, excretion, vitamin d production, sensory reception

epidermis

keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, contains keratinocytes, melanocytes, tactile epithelial cells, and dendritic cells

keratinocytes

most abundant cell type, produce fibrous protein keratin

melanocytes

manufacture and secrete pigment

tactile epithelial cells

attached to sensory nerve endings

dendritic cells

part of immune system

stratum basale

deepest layer of epidermis, one row of cells, contains young keratinocytes, melanocytes, and tacticle epithelial cells

stratum spinosum

spiny layer, contains keratinocytes and star shaped dendritic cells, which activate immune response and are always sampling outside

stratum granulosum

a few layers of keratinocytes, cells all dying not dividing

stratum lucidum

clear layer only in thick skin (palms and soles) made of rows of flat dead keratinocytes

stratum corneum

horny layer, thick layer of dead keratinocytes and thickened plasma membranes

papillary dermis

superficial dermis, areolar connective tissue, includes dermal papillae (fingerprints)

reticular dermis

80% of dermal thickness, deeper layer, dense irregular connective tissue

melanin

most important pigment, yellow reddish brown black

carotene

yellowish pigment from carrots and tomatoes

hemoglobin

allows crimson of blood to show through

nails

scalelike modification of epidermis, made of hard keratin, defining characteristic of primates

hair

flexible strand of dead (hard) keratinized cells, enhance touch and uv protection

hair structure

medulla - central core, cortex - middle layer, cuticle - outer layer

hair follicles

extend from epidermis into dermis

hair bulb

deep expanded end

hair follicle receptor

surrounds hair bulb, knot of sensory nerve endings, stimulated by bending hair

sebaceous glands

cover body except palms and soles, secrete sebum, accumulate lipids until bursting, controlled by androgens

sweat glands

eccrine and apocrine, blood filtrate

eccrine gland

most numerous, produce true sweat

apocrine gland

axillary, anal, genital areas, produce special kind of sweat

ceruminous gland

ear wax, modified apocrine

mammary glands

milk, modified apocrine

basal cell carcinoma

least malignant, most common

squamous cell carcinoma

arises from keratinocytes of stratum spinosum

melanoma

melanocytes, most dangerous type of skin cancer

uv skin pigmentation

uv destroys folate and is necessary for vitamin d synthesis

hyaline cartilage

supports and reinforces, resilient cushion, resists compression, found in costal cartilage

elastic cartilage

maintains shape while allowing flexibility, found in external ear

fibrocartilage

shock absorption, thick collagen fibers, found in intervertebral discs

bony skeleton functions

support, movement, protect underlying organs, blood cell formation, energy metabolism

bone markings

projections for muscle attachments, surfaces that form joints, depressions and openings

flat bone structure

spongy bone between layers of compact bone, contain bone marrow without marrow cavity

medullary cavity

hollow cavity filled with yellow marrow

long bone membranes

periosteum, perforating collagen fiber bundles, endosteum

osteogenic cells

stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts

osteoblasts

produce and secrete bone matrix

osteocytes

keep bone matrix healthy after mineralization of osteoblasts

osteoclasts

found within bone tissue, responsible for resorption of bone

spongy bone microscopic structure

layers of lamellae and osteocytes, receives nurtrition from blood vessels in marrow spaces

compact bone microscopic structure

haversian systems with hollow cores, linked with canals to supply blood, things can pass through the bone

bone organic components

cells, fibers, ground substance

bone inorganic components

mineral salts of bony matrix (65% of matrix)

intramembranous bone formation

mesenchymal cells cluster in fibrous ct membrane and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming ossification centers, bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted and calcified, and trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes, osteoid forms a random network of trabeculae called woven bone, vascularized mesenchyme becomes periosteum, lamellar bone replaces woven bone, red marrow appears

endochondral bone formation

bone collar forms around diaphysis of hyaline cartilage, cartilage in the center calcifies and develops cavities, periosteal bud invades cavities and spongy bone forms, medullary cavity forms, secondary ossification centers appear in epiphyses, the epiphyses ossify, hyaline cartilage only remains in epiphyseal plates and articular cartilage

major components of axial skeleton

skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage