QCAA 2024 Earth & Environmental Science Units 3 + 4

Albedo

The fraction of solar energy (shortwave radiation) reflected from the Earth back into space; measure of the reflectivity of the Earth's surface

Atmosphere

the layer of gases surrounding the planet

Biomass

the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time

Biosphere

The parts of the land, sea and atmosphere in which organisms are able to live

Carbon sink

a forest, ocean, or other natural environment viewed in terms of its ability to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Carrying capacity

The maximum population size of a biological species that an environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment

Clastic

A sedimentary rock texture consisting of broken fragments of preexisting rock.

Closed system

A system whose boundaries allow the exchange of energy, but not matter, with the surrounding environment

Core sampling

A vertical, cylindrical shaped boring used to determine composition and stratification

Ecological footprint

The impact of a person or community on the environment, expressed as the amount of land required to sustain their use of natural resources

Ecological validity

The degree to which results obtained from research are representative of the wider world

Ecosystem services

The benefits provided to humans through the transformations of resources into a flow of essential goods and services

El Niño

A change in the normal atmospheric pressure patterns that allows warmer waters from the Australia-Indonesia region to move towards South America, resulting in droughts in Australia-Indonesia and flooding in South America

Electromagnetic radiation

Energy that travels through space in the form of waves at the speed of light, including both visible and invisible waves

Exhalative processes

Processes associated with volcanicity that produce sulphide ore deposits, often lenticular in cross-section and commonly located above mineralized stockworks; ore deposits formed from volcanic materials which are extruded or 'exhaled' on to the Earth's surface through hydrothermal vents

Fracking

the process of injecting liquid at high pressure into subterranean rocks, boreholes, etc., so as to force open existing fissures and extract oil or gas.

Froth flotation

Valuable minerals or coal stick to bubbles and float to the surface where they are skimmed off

Geosphere

The solid Earth

Greenhouse gases

Gases that increase the heat retained in the atmosphere

Heat sink

An environment or medium that absorbs excess heat

Hydrocarbons

Compounds that only contain carbon and hydrogen

Hydrosphere

All liquid and frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapour

Hydrothermal

Relating to or denoting the action of heated water in the Earth's crust

Igneous settings

The production of igneous rocks related to tectonic settings; igneous rocks are products of partial melting in the upper mantle, subducted oceanic crust or lower continental crust

Infrared radiation

A type of electromagnetic radiation

Isobars

A line on a map connecting points that have the same atmospheric pressure at a given time or on average over a given period

Isolated system

A thermodynamic system that cannot exchange either energy of matter outside the boundaries of the system

Kerogens

Raw organic material from which petroleum forms

La Nina

The reverse of an extreme of the Southern Oscillation that causes extreme rainfall in parts of Australia

Longwall mining

A form of underground coal mining where a long wall of coal is mined in a single slice (0.6-1.0m thick). The longwall panel (block of coal being mined) is typically 3-4km long and 250-400m wide.

Magmatic

Production of ore deposits from processes that occur within a magma chamber

Maximum sustainable yield

The maximum level at which a natural resource can be routinely exploited without long-term depletion

Mesosphere

Directly above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere

Metamorphic settings

Production of mineral deposits based on metamorphic processes

Net primary production

The rate at which new biomass is generated, mainly through photosynthesis

Open system

A system in which energy and matter are exchanged between the system and its environment

Ozone

A form of oxygen that forms a molecule consisting of three oxygen molecules

P- and S- wave shadow zones

The shadow zone results from S-waves being stopped entirely by the liquid core and P-waves being refracted (or bent) by the liquid core

Placer deposit

Mass of gravel, sand or similar material containing particles of gold or other minerals

Plutonic

Relating to or denoting igneous rock formed by solidification at considerable depth beneath the Earth's surface

Radioisotope

An isotope of an element that emits radioactive particles

Sedimentary settings

The combination of physical, chemical and biological processes associated with the deposition of a particular type of sediment and, therefore, the rock types that will be formed after lithification

Seismic-velocity discontinuities

Sudden jumps in seismic velocities across geological layers

Slab pull

The concept that subducting plates are pulled along by their dense leading edges

Sluicing

wash or rinse freely with a stream or shower of water

Smelting

Extract (metal) from its ore by a process involving heating and melting

Southern Oscillation Index

A measure of changes in air pressure at sea level that describes the cyclic warming and cooling of the Eastern and Central Pacific Ocean

Stoping

the loosening and removal of ore in a mine, usually by working uphill, leaving behind an empty space known as a stope

Stratigraphic traps

A change in physical properties of the reservoir layer that traps gas and oil

Stratigraphy

Study of rock layers and layering of materials such as sediments including ash, meteoritic impact ejecta layers and soil

Stratosphere

The layer of the Earth's atmosphere above the troposphere, extending to about 50km above the Earth's surface

Subduction

The sliding of the sea floor beneath a continent or island arc

Sustainability

the quality of not being harmful to the environment or depleting natural resources, and therefore supporting long-term ecological balance

Thermosphere

The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and directly below the exosphere

Troposphere

One of the four thermal layers of the atmosphere; the layers in which clouds form

Trophic level

The position that an organisms occupies in a food chain or web

Ultraviolet radiation

Non-visible electromagnetic radiation with a shorter wavelength than visible violet light

Uniformitarianism

The principle that all geologic phenomena may be explained as the result of existing forces having operated similarly from the origin of Earth to the present time

Describe the differences between metallic, non-metallic and energy resources

Metallic minerals: found in igneous and metamorphic rock formations + conduct heat and electricity + higher in economic value

Non-metallic minerals: found in young fold mountains and sedimentary rocks + no metal properties + resistant to corrosion

Energy resources: any material that can be used as a source of energy

Bauxite formation

Formed when heavy tropical rainfall results in intense weathering of rock and soil

Gold formation

Fluids deep in the crust are heated by Earth's internal heat and move through rocks over a large area. When these fluids cool, the dissolved gold comes out of the fluid in cracks, forming veins.

Iron Ore formation

Formed by a chemical reaction of iron and oxygen mixed in marine and fresh water

Mineral Sands formation

Grow as crystals within igneous rocks, which are weathered and eroded over millions of years, with harder minerals being washed to the sea. Waves bring these minerals to the beach, and due to the weight, are left behind on the shore. Results in large deposit of minerals sands on beaches

Coal formation

Coal contains energy stored by plants in swampy forests millions of years ago. Layers of dirt and rock covered the plants over millions of years, where the pressure and heat turned the plants into coal.

Coal seam gas formation

Gas that is formed during the formation of a coal seam. Large amounts of gas are generated and stored within the coal on internal surfaces.

Crude oil formation

Forms over millions of years. Are the remains of marine organisms covered by layers of silt, sand and rock, which applied heat and pressure and led to oil forming

Natural gas formation

The decomposed remains of plants and animals create natural gases that become trapped in rock formations.

Igneous settings

Magmatic: melting or crystallisation of magma, concentrated in igneous rocks

Hydrothermal: association with magma and water

Exhalative: volcanic materials are extruded onto the Earth's surface through hydrothermal vents

Sedimentary settings

Placer deposits: minerals sorted and deposited by the flow of water

Geochemical processes: mineral deposits are formed by weathering reactions at the Earth's surface

Stratigraphic traps: sealed geological container retaining hydrocarbons, formed by changes in rock types

Exploration Techniques

Literature and historic records + remote sensing geophysical techniques + direct sampling geochemical techniques

Remote sensing techniques

Satellite and aerial imaging + hyperspectral imaging + geophysical datasets for magnetic, gravitational and radioactive testing

Direct sampling techniques

Soil and rock sampling + auguring + drilling + core samples

Dredging

Underwater excavation of a placer deposit

- bucket-wheel, clamshell, ladder, suction -> dependant on depth

Open-cut mining

Resource is extracted from the surface

- coal, copper, chromite, diamonds, granite, metal ores (gold, iron, silver)

Room and Pillar mining

Variant of stoping -> material is extracted across a horizontal plane where rooms of ore are dug out and pillars of untouched materials are left to support the roof

Onshore drilling

Wellbore is drilled through layers of rock and sediment

- used for crude oil and natural gas

Offshore drilling

Wellbore is drilled below the seabed

- natural gas and crude oil

Fracking

The process of creating fractures in rock formations by injecting fluid at high pressure into cracks to force them further open

Separation and processing techniques for metallic and non-metallic are:

Crushing, milling, sluicing, froth flotation, smelting

Separation and processing techniques for fossils fuels are:

Separation, fractional distillation, fracking

Milling

Breaking down, separating, sizing and classifying aggregate material using machinery

Fractional distillation

Only used for crude oil -> material is heated by a furnace and sent to a distillation tower where it is separated by boiling point and hydrocarbons into finished products such as gasoline or asphalt