Chapter 8 - Social cohesion pt. 2

What is social cohesion?

The degree to which members of society are connected and live peacefully together.

What are the two dimensions of cohesion?

Order (violence) and connectedness (detachment).

What indicates low cohesion?

High violence and high social isolation

What is structural functionalism?

A theory that sees society as a system of interdependent parts.

What maintains social order?

Shared norms and values.

What is the role of institutions?

To stabilize society.

Refined functionalism

= Merton’s revised version of functionalism that makes it more realistic by allowing dysfunctions, diversity, and limited scope

Who developed refined functionalism?

Robert Merton.

What are manifest functions?

Intended effects of institutions.

What are latent functions?

Unintended effects.

What are dysfunctions?

Negative consequences of institutions.

Example of manifest function of school?

Education

Example of latent function?

Social networking.

Example of dysfunction?

Reproducing inequality.

What are functional alternatives?

Different ways to achieve the same function.

What is anomie (Durkheim)?

Lack of norms.

What is anomie (Merton)?

Mismatch between goals and means.

Strain theory

= deviance happens when people cannot achieve socially valued goals through legitimate means

What causes strain?

Inequality in access to means.

What are the 5 adaptations?

Conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion.

What is conformity?

Accept goals and means.

What is innovation?

Accept goals but reject means.

What is ritualism?

Reject goals but follow rules.

What is retreatism?

Reject both goals and means.

What is rebellion?

Replace goals and means

Why does deviance occur?

Structural strain.

Is deviance always bad?

No, it can signal problems in society

Criticism of functionalism?

Ignores conflict.

Another criticism?

Assumes too much stability.

What increases cohesion?

Strong social ties

What decreases cohesion?

Isolation and inequality

How does Durkheim explain cohesion?

Shared norms and integration.

How does Merton explain breakdown?

Structural strain.

Example of innovation?

Fraud for money.

Example of retreatism?

Drug addiction

Example of rebellion?

Political revolution

What is the key insight of Merton?

Not all parts of society are functional.

What is cohesion dependent on?

Balance between integration and regulation.

Why does inequality increase strain according to Merton?

Because society promotes the same goals (e.g. success, wealth) for everyone, but access to legitimate means is unequally distributed, creating pressure on disadvantaged groups.

Why is strain theory considered a structural theory?

Because it explains deviance as a result of the social structure (inequality, blocked opportunities), not individual pathology.

How does strain theory explain crime differently from individual explanations?

It sees crime as a rational adaptation to limited opportunities rather than a result of personal moral failure.

Why is innovation the most associated adaptation with crime?

Because individuals accept societal goals (e.g. wealth) but use illegitimate means to achieve them when legitimate paths are blocked.

What type of society produces the most strain?

A society with strong emphasis on success goals but unequal access to legitimate means (e.g. highly competitive capitalist societies).

Why does ritualism reduce strain?

Because individuals lower their goals and simply follow rules, avoiding the pressure to achieve success

What is the difference between retreatism and rebellion?

Retreatism withdraws from society entirely, while rebellion seeks to replace existing goals and means with new ones.

How does Merton connect anomie to inequality?

Anomie arises when there is a disconnection between culturally promoted goals and the unequal distribution of means to achieve them.

Why is complete consensus unrealistic according to Merton?

Because different social groups have different interests, so society is not fully unified or harmonious.

What does Merton mean by “dysfunction”?

A consequence of a social structure that disrupts stability or harms parts of society.

Why is it important to distinguish manifest and latent functions?

Because institutions often have hidden effects that are more important than their stated purposes.

What is functional unity and why does Merton reject it?

Functional unity is the idea that all parts of society work together harmoniously; Merton rejects it because some structures benefit certain groups while harming others.

How do functional alternatives challenge classic functionalism?

They show that no institution is absolutely necessary, since others can perform the same function.

How does innovation affect social cohesion?

It can undermine cohesion by breaking rules, but also reflects systemic inequality.

Final synthesis — how does Merton explain cohesion and deviance together?

Society promotes shared goals, but unequal access to means creates strain, leading to different adaptations that can either maintain or disrupt social cohesion.

Merton’s contributions to durkheim’s theory:

1. generalization -> anomie applied to crime

2. improvement -> anomie socially.culturally determines

3. expansion -> who is criminal? white collar crime

White collar crime:

• adjustment to merton’s anomie theory was necessary:

• original theory: unequal access to legitimate means

• adjustment: + unequal access to illegitimate means

hypotheses (sutherland, 1949):

• original: lower class commit more crimes than higher classes

• adjusted: higher classes commit more financial crimes

Social cohesion bonds:

types of cohesion: three types of bonds

1. affective bonds

2. economic bonds

3. institutional bonds

Affective bonds:

affective bonds:

• kinship, marriage, family, friends

• composition, forming and dissolution household

• developments:

• • openness society mixed marriages)

• • decreasing taboos, more opportunities

• • individualisering

functions affective bonds:

• task division: food, household, nursing, maintaining family ties, leisure

Functions of the family - structural functionalism:

1. socialisation

2. regulating sexual activities: incesttabo

3. social positioning

4. material and emotional certainty: the family as anchor in a heartless world

Functions of the family → conflict perspective:

1. property and inheritance

• patriarchy: women are subordinate to men

• men can only know for sure who their descendants are when they control the sexuality of the women

• the family therefore ensures that the woman becomes the sexual and economic property of the man

• race and ethnicity: the endogamous marriage maintains racial and ethnic hierarchies.

Reasons for divorce:

• increasing individualism

• romantic love decreases

• women are less dependent on men

• a lot of marriages are accompanies by tensions

• a divorce becomes socially acceptable and easier.

Economic bonds:

• exchange of goods, means of production and labour

• work force

• resources (means to achieve goals)

• development: advancing division of labour, aging

Combo affective and economic bonds:

Some social relationships involve both emotions (affective bonds) and economic exchange.

The family–work relationship is a classic example.

evaluation of structural functionalism:

pros:

• social explanation of crime and suicide

• influence integration, norms, socialization, anomie

-> a real sociological explanation

cons:

• importance of norms for a group neglected

• immunization (type of norm)

• potentially circular

Institutional bonds:

• political parties, labour unions

• associations (sport,culture, etc.)

• religious denominations, idealistic groupings

Groups: primary and secondary

Groups: primary and secondary

• group vs category (continuum)

• category -> people share a characteristic but do not interact.

• social group: two or more people who identify and interact with each other

• Individual - we - them

• primary and secondary groups based on the level of genuine interest.

• person oriented: who are we? vs goal oriented: what do we do?

• is also a continuum: idealtype

Primary group:

Interaction and communication + shared norms and values

• Ex. family, friends

Gathering:

Interaction and communication yes, shared norms and values no

• ex. waiting on the tram

Collectivity:

Interaction and communication no, but shared norms and values yes.

• ex. inhibitants of a country/city, political party

Social category:

No interaction and communication and no shared norms and values.

• Ex. students, 65+ old people

Groups and central concepts:

• group pressure and conformism

• reference group

• size of the group

• social diversity

how unique and special is our acting?

• we want to belong to a group, this leads to conformism or adjusted behaviour.

• experiments: solomon asch (lines length), stanley milgram (electroshock), the wave (authoritarian teacher)

• compare group presser with groupthink or tunnelvision

reference group

with whom do you compare yourself?

• samuel stouffer (1949): research in the army about in estimating promotion opportunities. group with low amount of promotions increase own chances.

• ingroups vs outgroup behaviour

group size: george simmel

• dyade:

• relationship between 2 people

• intense interaction

• inherently unstable

• triade:

• group with 3 members

• less instable: isolation and less flexibility

• small groups: personally, bigger and more convenient with tasks

social diversity:

• bigger groups are more focused internally

• heterogenous groups are more focussed externally

• social unity stimulates interaction

• physical boundaries emphasizes the social boundaries

groups and organisations: why do formal groups, bureaucracies arise?

• efficient way of executing complex tasks

• formal groups become more and more important in daily lives of people

• formal organizations: large secondary groups who want to accomplish their goals in the most efficient way possible

• of course such organisations have an organization culture, weber’s rationalization process

• the informal side of a society or bureaucracy; informal norms; informal leadership; informal resistance (implicit struggle)

Culture:

• how can you live? system of values, beliefs, norms, practicalities, objects that determine the way of life

• culture is made by people and culture makes people (agency vs structure)

non material culture:

• symbols: symbolic interactionism/values and beliefs

• language: languages in nl, illiteracy

• norms: proscriptive and prescriptive, morals, etiquette

Process sociology/figuration sociology:

emphasis on two-way directions of human relations: individuals make society and society makes individuals

inter-dependency of humans -> effect on the psychological structure

impact on people’s bodies and emotions

Elias work:

elias’s work:

• figurations: denies structure - agency dichotomy

the civilizing process:

• changes in everyday behaviours become more self-constrained

• sources - books on manners from 13th to 19th centuries

• occurs through increasing dependency chains

• rise of western civilization is connected to the emergence of a western style of body culture: bodies and body functions hidden, concepts of shame, social distance, emotional control, suppression of animality,.

control and self-control:

• monopoly of power/force concentrates and becomes more passive

• self constraint takes over in social space

• because of increasing interdependence and connections among individuals (dependency chains).

health as symbol of social relationships

• development of concerns with health and hygiene: reflect increased “delicacy of feeling” between individuals.

• a symbol of correct social relationships: democratization of society, individualization of the person, health now open to all.

• concern with bodies and their presentation to others marks long-term progressive history,

Material:

• clothes, jewellery, furniture - hammock vs bed

Sociological vision of culture:

• functionalism: culture keeps order and prevents societies from falling apart

• conflict sociology: culture confirms inequality

• interactionism paradigm: class distinctions between high and low culture (cultural capital)

Process of socialization:

• experience

• rules of social interaction

• to make culture your own

• nature vs nature: genetically determined vs tabula rasa

culture as high culture?

• culture with a capital c

• distinguished elite (elitism)

• complex (ex. camp)

• popular culture: broader public, more accessible

Maintain high social class ahead:

pierre bourdieu (1930-2002): social reproduction via education:

passing through of differences in resources between classes from generation to generation

cultural reproduction:

• passing through dominant knowledge from generation to generation

• cultural capital

Cultural capital:

Being in the lead is based on cultural baggage and capacity to make this baggage your own.

Measuring cultural capital:

• How often do you go to the museum, exhibition, ballet, opera, theatre or concert?

• how often do you listen classical music?

• How often do you read serious books?

• How many books do you have?

• Do you have an encyclopedia, dictionary or atlas at home?

But not:

• How aften are you in the library?

Sub culture and counter culture:

• Homogenous culture vs. heterogenous culture

• Sub culture: apart segment of society with its own practicalities.

• Counter culture: practicalities which immediately resist to the common culture.

cultural development:

• invention, discovery and dissemination

• technological development goes relatively quick

• values and norms do not develop that quickly: traditional family still the most important, conflict between cultures ex: use of smartphones in families

ethnocentrism and cultural relativism:

ethnocentrism:

• judge based on your own culture: prejudice, incomprehension and conflict

cultural relativism:

• judge culture based on their standards, how far do you have to go though?