Gen Psych Exam 3

What is classical conditioning?

where you introduced to a new stimulus to be conditioned to respond in a different way --> bell then introduced to food, the dogs will start salivating at the bell

How did Pavlov study classical conditioning?

dog experiment --> dogs salivate at food but introduced to a bell at first which trained them to salivate to the bell

What are the unconditioned response?

automatic response --> the dog salivating

What are unconditioned stimulus?

stimulus that starts the automatic response --> the dog food

What are conditioned response?

what they are trained --> salivate at bell

What are conditioned stimulus?

the new stimulus being introduced --> the bell before the food

What is acquisition?

"learning stage" --> the bell then food, over and over

What is generalization?

generalizing --> dog attacked = scared of all dogs (younger)

What is discrimination?

only one kind --> dog attacked = scared of dogs that look like the dog that attacked (older)

What is extinction?

when there is no more conditioned response to conditioned stimulus --> no more salivating at bell

What is spontaneous recovery?

when extinction happened, but ring the bell after a break and dog starts salivating again --> tends to be short-lived

What is second-order (higher-order) conditioning?

when another condition stimulus gets introduced --> bell, light (over and over) dog will salivate at light but is weaker

What is a conditioned aversion?

mainly taste and smell --> something bad happens and doesn't want to do again, food poison = doesn't want to eat that food again

What was Watson and Raynor’s study with Little Albert?

paired a loud noise with a rat to induce fear --> he generalized fear to all fluffy things

What is counterconditioning (i.e., Mary Cover Jones’s study)?

used in therapy, extinct condition stimulus doesn't come back --> replaces stimulus with something else to avoid spontaneous recovery --> scared of bunnies but pairs it with milk and cookies and they will like

What is operant conditioning?

same concept of reward and punishment -> likes outcome = will do more while doesn't like the outcome = won't do more

What is Thorndike’s law of effect?

the effort is based upon behavior on the environment --> cat is hungry so tries harder to get food out of box

What was Thorndike’s puzzle box?

can be classical or operant --> classic = involved involuntary reactions (reflexes, response to stimulus) while operant = voluntary behaviors (person in control, behavior first then response from environment after)

What is a Skinner box?

like puzzle box --> animals are just trained to obtain their foods in different ways (pressing buttons to get food)

What are reinforcements?

anything that will make a behavior more likely to occur - reward

What are punishments?

punished to make behavior appear less

What is shaping?

breaking down in steps --> steps in training (riley with teaching her to scratch)

What are successive approximations?

the steps toward the end behavior wanted --> going to sand paper and scratching

What are positive reinforcement?

giving something to encourage a behavior --> teacher giving stickers when being good

What are negative reinforcement?

taking away something to encourage a behavior --> hw getting cancelled if acting good

What are positive punishment?

giving something to stop behavior --> yelling at kids

What are negative punishment?

taking away something to stop behavior --> taking phone/x-box away

What are continuous reinforcement?

every time behavior is done = gets reward (giving treat after every treat)

What are intermittent (partial) reinforcement?

given reinforcers at different amounts of time --> giving treats after every so often tricks

What are Fixed-ratio reinforcement?

consistent --> every time dog sits 5 times gives treat

What are Variable-ratio reinforcement?

not consistent --> unpredictable (number of times done changes to get reward)

what are Fixed-interval reinforcement?

within the time frame --> will get a reward in intended time (school dance after every year- knows it is happening and when)

what are Variable-interval reinforcement?

reward at random times within time frame --> school gives party throughout the year but not sure when

What are some problems with punishment?

can model aggression, won't eliminate bad behaviors, fearful of punisher

What are intrinsic motivation?

internal reason for doing it --> doing it for own self

What are extrinsic motivation?

external reason for doing it --> money/validation

What is the overjustification effect?

when first internal but then too much reinforcement from external --> can become external (money for good grades)

What is observational learning?

watching others and learning that way of behaving --> mirror neurons

What is modeling?

imitating other's behaviors

What was Bandura’s Bobo doll study?

when kids watch individuals play with toys but beat the doll --> they mimicked it

What are the implications of observational learning for aggressive and prosocial behavior?

likelihood to help others when witnessing others help first (donate or tip)

What are encoding?

getting information into memory --> bringing information in (computer - writing a paper) or (education - going to class and learning)

what are storage?

maintaining encoded information over time --> keeping it in memory (computer - saving to hard-drive/cloud) or (education - studying/flashcards)

what is retrieval?

pulling previously encoded and stored information from memory --> pulling out to use it (computer - taking out the flashdrive) or (education - taking a test)

What are sensory memory?

really short, memories of what our sensory memory senses (vague - seeing class full of faces but not remembering them)

what is short term memory?

15-30 secs then gone - a small portion of sensory memory moves to short-term memory --> limited capacity

what is long term memory?

relatively permanent memory --> capacity to be permanent (unlimited)

What are iconic memory?

vision, 1-2 secs unless we pay attention (double look, looking then looking away, processing, and then look again)

What are echoic memory?

sound, 3-4 secs - doesn't process at first, says "what" but realize before they repeat

What are explicit memory?

conscious recollection of material from long-term memory (declarative) --> memories we are consciously aware of

what are implicit memory?

not brought to mind consciously - unconscious, doesn't remember but still affects us, trauma

What are semantic memory?

memory from general knowledge --> facts

what is episodic memory?

memories from personal experiences --> can recall, "what did you do yesterday"

what is procedural memory?

skills, things we do but can't explain how

what is priming memory?

exposed to something, affects us later --> can be conscious or not

what is classically conditioned associations memory?

are implicant

What are recall?

pulls out of memory without any cues, knows answer with no hints

what is recognition?

uses memory to identify --> multiple choice

what is relearning?

evidence of learning --> learning old topic = easier to learn second way around

What are maintenance rehearsal?

going over the same thing again and again

What are elaborative rehearsal?

think about what it means and connects it to examples --> in depth process to memorize

What is Craik and Tulving’s (1975) levels of processing theory?

when we process info, it varies, more we deep process the better we know

What are shallow processing?

only process superficial things --> color, size, things we first notice

What are deep processing?

meaning --> examining, analyzing (work with elaborate rehearsal 0 thinking what it means)

What was their study with CHAIR, etc.?

testing different kinds of processing --> asking of different questions with different words

What are context-dependent memory?

environment is coded along with memory --> external (the room)

What are state-dependent memory?

internal - mood you were in serves a cue for you to remember

What are encoding failure?

failing to code a memory from the beginning. --> "forgetting" a person's name after meeting - not paying attention

What are storage decay?

have encoded and stored but memory faded --> school work after summer

what are retrieval failure?

when you remember something but can't pull it out --> usually on a test

What is Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve?

if we forget something = the sooner than later, if we remember later than less of a chance of forgetting

What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?

needing help to remember

What are anterograde amnesia?

forgetting, typically with brain injury --> remember old memories but hard to remember new memories, learns new skills but forgets --> body doesn't (muscle memory)

What are retrograde amnesia?

memories from before accident are lost but can form new memories --> usually in the movies when people wake up and don't remember

What type of amnesia and memory impairment did H.M. experience?

anterograde amnesia

Is eyewitness testimony reliable?

no, choice of wording can change the meaning of what actually happened in their eyes

What was found in Loftus’s (1974) study (hit vs. smashed)?

smash gave off a more dramatic effect which makes eye-witness people belive in it being worst

What is the representativeness heuristic?

when you make a decision you jump into conclusion due to not having all of the info --> judgement/stereotype

What are base rates?

uses stat --> more truck drivers > professors

What is the base-rate fallacy?

ignores stat --> uses stereotype and assumptions

What is the availability heuristic?

when told something over and over --> starts to believe it due to the amount of time you hear it (voting, false info, etc)

What is the simulation heuristic (counterfactual thinking)?

often think of doing something different --> can't change outcome, already happened but thinks "what if" (olympics example with 2nd place)

What are the outcomes of bilingualism?

better at addressing problems, less chance of brain disease, higher achievement in higher grade, multitask, brain activation

What is the perseverance effect (belief perseverance)?

stick to believing beliefs even though it's debunked

What is confirmation bias?

don't pay attention or don't notice that it can be debunked --> only pay attention to stuff consistent to beliefs

What are the effects of stimulating on intellectual abilities?

ready to learn and active to reach higher intelligence --> keeps brain active to grow

What are the effects of non-stimulating on intellectual abilities?

Romanian orphanages- behind in IQ based upon how long they were there for

What is stereotype threat?

people who are apart of a stereotype will conform an follow it --> can't perform at their best

How can stereotype threat be combatted?

looking up to somebody, being aware of stereotype threats, and knowing that if you work hard that your skills are adaptive

What are fixed and growth mindsets?

fixed tends to give up while growth tends to think of what to improve on for next time

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

all individuals have needs --> needs to reach bottom needs before top needs

What is self-actualization?

being the best person you can be --> fulfilling internal needs - realizing full potential

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?

first physiological arousal and then emotions

What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?

physiological arousal and emotions at same time

What is Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory of emotion?

physiological arousal then understand why and then emotions

What is the misattribution of arousal?

can misinterprets for other emotions

What was found in Dutton and Aron’s (1974) study with the wobbly bridge?

the arousal was mistaken for lust

What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

brain interperpates facial expression as emotions (smiling = feeling more happy)

What are internal (dispositional) attributions?

judging --> think someone's behavior is because f their characteristics and traits

What are external (situational) attributions?

understanding --> thinking of someone's circumstances determine someone's behavior