Macronutrients & Micronutrients

organic vs inorganic

organic = containings carbon-carbon bonds or carbon-hydrogen bonds

inorganic = no carbon molecules

carbohydrates structure

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

glucose is the preferred fuel source by the body, during times of starvation what will happen?

during starvation there is a lack of available glucose, so fat and protein will be broken down for energy. Fat is metabolized into ketones for the brain to utilize as an energy source.

what is glycogen and where can it be found?

a branch polysaccharide that is the stored form of carbs in mammals and is stored in the liver/muscles.

plants store carbs in the form of

starches

carbohydrates are readily available in which foods

fruits, veg, grains, cereals, dairy and sugars

gluconeogenesis

gluco = glucose

neo = new

genesis = formation

the formation of glucose from a non-carb source (such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glucogenic AAs and some fatty acids) to prevent hypoglycemia

takes place in the liver and in the cortex of the kidneys

glycogenolysis

glyco = glucose

lysis = break down

the breakdown of stored glycogen to glucose

when your body is experiencing starvation, extreme exercise, high adrenaline / fight-flight responses, glycogenolysis is increased

what enzymes are involved in glyconeogenesis

glycogen phosphorylase

✔️ Breaks glycogen down

✔️ Cleaves off the terminal glucose units one at a time and adds a phosphoryl group

✔️ Produces glucose-1-phosphate (G1P)

"phosPhOrylase --> P.O. --> plucks one at a time"

phosphoglucomutase

✔️ rearranges the phosphate group so glucose can be used for metabolism

✔️ Converts glucose-1-phosphate → glucose-6-phosphate (G6P)

"Mutase = Moves stuff around."

glucose-6-phosphatase

✔️ Removes phosphate from G6P

✔️ Makes free glucose that can leave the liver into the bloodstream

"PhosphaTASE = TAKES phosphate away"

polysaccharides can be either _______ or ______

digestible or non-digestible (dietary fiber)

common digestible polysaccharides include

starch (digestible)

dextrin (digestible)

glycogen (digestible)

amylopectin (digestible)

common non-digestible polysaccharides include

cellulose (non-digestible)

hemicellulose (non-digestible)

inulin (non-digestible)

pectin (non-digestible)

psyllium husk mucilage (non-digestible)

amylose (non-digestible)

soluble fiber

dissolves in water and includes pectin, gums, mucilages

found in fruits, oats, barley and legumes

- delays gastric emptying and transit of chyme through the intestines

- delays glucose absorption

- can lower cholesterol levels

in-soluble fiber

does not dissolve in water and includes cellulose and hemicellulose

found in wheat grains, bran, rice, cabbage, brussels sprouts, nuts and seeds

- increases the transit of chyme through the intestines

- increases fecal wt

- slow starch breakdown and delays glucose absorption into the blood

pre-biotics

the meal preps that feed probiotics (the healthy bacteria in the gut) promoting a healthy bowel system

found in apples, bananas, berries, artichokes, asparagus, garlic, green veggies, onions, tomatoes, legumes, soy beans, wheat, oats, and flax seeds

- increase calcium absorption

- help avoid blood sugar spikes

- increase immune system

proteins are made up of

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

nitrogen is _____% of protein

16%

which proteins contain sulfur

methionine, cysteine, homocysteine, and taurine

proteins are readily available in which foods

meats, poultry, fish, egg, dairy, nuts and seeds

___________ is the measure of protein quality and the ability of the human to digest it

PDCAAS = protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score

which three foods have the highest PDCAAS rating of 1.00?

milk proteins, egg protein and soy protein

describe the primary structure of protein

primary: AA sequence as a polypeptide chain held together by covalent bonds

describe the secondary structure of protein

secondary: alpha-helix/beta-pleated sheet configuration held together by hydrogen bonds

Describe the tertiary structure of a protein

tertiary: three dimensional folding of a protein

Describe the quaternary structure of a protein

quaternary: interaction between two or more polypeptide chains

Amino Acids

a single unit of protein that consists of a central carbon atom with an amine group, an acid group, a hydrogen atom, and a unique side group

what happens when too much protein is consumed?

when too much protein is consumed, the excess AAs are transported to the liver

deamination = the amine group and hydrogen atom are removed from the amino acid, then the two molecules join to form ammonia; the remaining amino acid is then converted to carb or fat

all amino acids are glucogenic except for

leucine and lysine

some amino acids are both glucogenic and ketogenic (they can be turned into glucose or ketones)

isoleucine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine

complete vs incomplete proteins

complete proteins contain all essential amino acids your body requires daily, and incomplete proteins only contain some essential amino acids.

complementary proteins

with the exception of soy protein, plant proteins such as:

- beans and rice

- peanut butter and whole wheat bread

beans and nuts (legumes) are low in amino acid methionine and grains are low in the amino acid lysine....combining grains and legumes together fill in the gaps of the lacking essential amino acids.

daily protein needs for healthy adults

0.8 g/kg/d (10-15% of total kcal)

1 gram of fat = ____ kcals

9 kcals

sources of fats include

animal fat, veg oils, butter, margarine, eggs, dairy, nuts, some vegetables (avocados)

a healthy diet should have no more than ___% of kcal of fat daily, less than ___% of calories should be saturate fat and less than ____% of calories should be trans fat

30% of kcal daily (<10% Sat, <1% Trans)

dietary cholesterol is FOUND in what foods?

dietary cholesterol is ONLY present in animal foods (meat, fish, poultry, dairy, egg yolks)

majority of the fat from food that we eat are

triglycerides (glycerol backbone, three fatty acids)

fatty acids structure

a chain of carbon atoms w hydrogen atoms attached, one end has a acid group (COOH) and the other end has a methyl group (CH3)

usually 4 to 24 carbons long

can be saturated or unsaturated

the fatty acids most commonly found in our food are _____ carbons long

18

saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids

saturated fatty acids

- fully loaded with hydrogen atoms

- only single bonds btw carbon atoms

- solid at room temp

unsaturated fatty acids

- has at least two hydrogen atoms missing

- at least one double bond btw carbon atoms

- liquid at room temp

omega-3 (n-3)

three types of omega-3 are:

a. EPA = eicosapentaenoic acid

b. DHA = docosahexaenoic acid

c. alpha-linolenic acid

found in various fish

written as 18:3 (18 carbon chain, the first double bond is three carbons away from the methyl end)

omega-6 (n-6)

linoleic acid

"linOLeic --> OiLs"

found in various oils (soybean, corn, safflower, flaxseed), nuts (walnuts, cashews, pecans, pine nuts), seeds, poultry, eggs, and some grains

written as 18:2 (18 carbon chain, the first double bond is six carbons away from the methyl end)

omega-9 (n-9)

oleic acid

"OLeic ---> OLive oils"

found in olive oils and canola oils

written as 18:1 (18 carbon chain, the first double bond is nine carbons away from the methyl end)

phospholipid structure

glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group

the fatty acids make it soluble in fat and the phosphate group allows them to dissolve in water

_______ (phospholipid) is commonly used in the food industry to mix fats with water in products such as mayonnaise.

lecithin

natural sources of lecithin

eggs, liver, soybeans, wheat germ, and peanuts

what are sterols

lipids containing multiple rings of carbon atoms

ex: cholesterol

sterols in animals vs plants

meats, eggs, fish, poultry, dairy ---> provide cholesterol

plant sterols block cholesterol absorption (so if u need to lower blood cholesterol levels have a diet rich in plant sterols)

cholesterol can be synthesized into what

vitamin D

negative effect of cholesterol

can build up in artery walls leading to the formation of plaque ---> atherosclerosis ---> heart attacks/strokes

hydrogenation

turning a liquid fat into a solid by saturating an unsaturated fat with hydrogen atoms

fractionation

turning a liquid fat into a solid by heating the liquid at a high temp, removing the liquid portion and the solid fat is left remaining; this does not chemically alter the molecules

______ is a common fat used in fractionation

palm kernel oil

fat replacers / fat substitutes

non fat substances taht act like fat in a food

no health risks and tastes like and looks like a natural fat with fewer calories

commonly found in baked goods, cheese, sour cream, yogurt, margarine, salad dressings, sauces, gravies

can be fat, carb or protein based

examples of fat replacers

simpLESSe

BENEfat

salaTRIM

oLEStra

oLEAN

(key: all have words of being leaner, less calories)

bioavailability

the rate at which a nutrient is absorbed and used

precursor/provitamin

an inactive form of the vitamin, once in the body, it is converted into the active form of the vitamin

coenzyme

small organic molecule that associates with certain enzymes

many B vitamins play an important role as coenzymes

thiamin functions

part of TPP for energy metabolism

oxidation of carbs (increase need with an increase in carbs)

metabolism of pyruvate (high pyruvate means thiamin deficiency)

thiamin food sources

organ meat

wheat germ

enriched foods

whole grains

legumes

potatoes

Thiamin deficiency

beriberi (edema + muscle wasting) ---> "I'm beri beri weak"

muscle weakness

metabolic acidosis (high pyruvate)

tachycardia

memory loss

foot drop

wernickes ---> "Wer- confused"

korsakoffs ---> "Off- brain off (amnesia)"

how is thiamin easily destroyed

by heat (if any answers say "cooked" do not pick them)

riboflavin functions

protein metabolism

RBC production

helps release energy from pro, fat, cho by acting as a coenzyme (FAD/FMN) in energy metabolism

food sources of riboflavin

fortified/enriched grain products

naturally in whole grains

liver

milk!!! dairy products!!!

Riboflavin deficiency

ariboflavinosis

cheilosis/angular stomatitis

magenta tongue

skin lesions with greasy scales

cracked lips

growth failure

cheilosis

a disorder of the lips characterized by crack-like sores at the corners of the mouth (also known as angular stomatitis)

ariboflavinosis

sore throat and swollen mucous membranes

how is riboflavin easily destroyed

ultraviolet light and irradiation

niacin function

metabolism (cho/fat/pro) = B3

part of NAD & NADP for energy metabolism

food sources for niacin

**allllll protein containing foods**

nuts

fortified foods

"thats a niceeee piece of meat"

Niacin deficiency

pellagra = the 4 D's (dementia, dermatitis = rash in sun, diarrhea, and death) remember "niacin is not so nice if you're low in it"

glossitis

rash on areas of skin exposed to sunlight

______ is the precursor of niacin

Tryptophan

biotin functions

coensyme in FA synthesis

assist in converting pyruvate to oxaloacetate in gluconeogenesis

energy metabolism

AA metabolism

biotin food sources

soy beans

egg yolks

fish

whole grains

liver

produced by gut bacteria

biotin deficency can lead to

muscle pain

hallucinations

numb/tingling arms or legs

red scaly rash around the eyes, nose and mouth

brittle nails

hair loss

how is biotin easily inactivated / destroyed

it is inactivated by avidin (a protein found in raw egg whites)

vitamin B5 aka

pantothenic acid

vitamin B5 function

co-enzyme for acetyl coA/energy metabolism

food sources of pantothenic acid

animal products (chicken, beef, egg yolk)

whole grains

potatoes

oats

tomatoes

liver

brocolli

vitamin B5 deficiency

paresthesia (numb/tingling in feet)

anorexia (not eating)

increase sensitivity to insulin

restlessness

inability to walk

NOT COMMON: body needs such a little amount and it is in all foods!

how is vitamin B5 easily destroyed

by food processing

vitamin B6 function

part of PLP & PMP for AA and fatty acid metabolism

an increased pro requires and increase in B6

help convert tryptophan to niacin and to serotonin

help make RBCs

vitmain B6 should always be supplemented if a patient is taking a B6 antagonist such as __________

INH (isoniazid) an antibiotic

how can INH lead to vit B6 deficiency?

Isoniazid is an effective antibiotic used to treat or prevent tuberculosis (TB), but it interferes with the body's metabolism and function of vitamin B6, depleting its levels. This depletion can lead to a serious side effect called peripheral neuropathy, which involves numbness, tingling, and pain, typically in the hands and feet.

vitamin B6 aka

Pyridoxine

pyridoxine food sources

non-citrus fruits

meat and fish and poultry

starchy veggies

fortified cereal

legumes

liver

soy products

P foods:

Peanuts

Potatos

Poultry

Pork

a deficiency in vitamin B6 can lead to

elevated homocysteine levels (hyperhomocysteinemia = CVD)

scaly dermatitis

microcytic anemia

seizures

confusion

how is vitamin B6 / pyridoxine easily destroyed

by heat

folate functions

DNA synthesis

new cell formation

forms RBC in bone

prevents neural tube defects

folate aka

vitamin B9

folate food sources

seeds

fortified cereals

leafy green vegetables

legumes (lentals/beans)

folate deficiency

anemia

glossitis

mental confusion

elevated homocysteine levels

in pregnancy: neural tube defects, spinal bifida (split spine), anencephaly (no brain)

how is folate easily destroyed

heat and oxygen

vitamin B12 is also known as

cyanocobalamin or cobalamin

cobalamin functions

new cell formation

maintains nerve cells

break down assistance w/ AAs and Fatty Acids

vitamin B12 food sources

naturally found in animal foods (meat, fish, poultry, shellfish, milk, cheese, eggs)

fortified cereals

nutritional yeast

a deficiency in vitamin B12 can lead to

pernicious anemia (caused by atrophic gastritis and a lack of intrinsic factor)

paralysis

elevated homocysteine levels

how is vitamin B12 easily destroyed

by microwabe cooking; absorption decreases with age

vitamin C functions

wound healing

collagen synthesis (strengthens blood vessel walls, form scar tissue, bone growth)

antioxidant

thyroxin synthesis

AA metabolism

increase resistance to infection

increase absorption of iron

vitamin C aka

ascorbic acid