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19.1A - Blood and Homeostasis
Blood helps maintain homeostasis by:
Transporting substances – Delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells and removes waste.
Regulating pH and ions – Buffers in the blood maintain a stable pH.
Regulating temperature – Blood distributes heat throughout the body.
Clotting – Prevents blood loss after injury.
Immune defense – White blood cells and antibodies fight infections.
19.2A - Components of Blood
Plasma (55%) – Fluid containing water, proteins, nutrients, and waste.
Formed elements (45%) – Red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets.
19.2B - Blood Volume
Males: 5–6 liters
Females: 4–5 liters
19.3A - Blood Plasma Components
Water (92%)
Proteins (7%)
Nutrients, gases, waste, and hormones (1%)
19.3B - Major Plasma Proteins
Albumin – Maintains osmotic pressure.
Globulins – Involved in immunity (antibodies).
Fibrinogen – Essential for blood clotting.
19.4A - Three Formed Elements
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells - RBCs)
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells - WBCs)
Thrombocytes (Platelets)
19.4B - Origin & Production of Formed Elements
Produced in red bone marrow (hematopoiesis).
Hemocytoblasts (stem cells) differentiate into RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.
19.4C - Hemoglobin Structure & Function
Structure: 4 polypeptide chains, each with an iron-containing heme.
Function: Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Oxygen binds to iron, CO₂ binds to globin.
9.4D - Fetal vs. Adult Hemoglobin
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen, allowing better oxygen transfer from mother to fetus.
19.4E - Red Blood Cell Life Cycle
Lifespan: ~120 days.
Old RBCs are broken down in the liver & spleen.
Iron is recycled, and bilirubin is excreted in bile.
19.4F - Types of White Blood Cells
Neutrophils – Fight bacterial infections.
Lymphocytes – Produce antibodies.
Monocytes – Become macrophages and engulf pathogens.
Eosinophils – Combat parasites and allergies.
Basophils – Release histamine in allergic reactions.
19.4G - Platelet Origin & Structure
Origin: Made from megakaryocytes in bone marrow.
Structure: Small cell fragments without a nucleus.
Forms platelet plugs at injury sites.
Releases clotting factors to prevent blood loss.
19.5A - Hemostasis (Stopping Bleeding)
Vascular Spasm – Blood vessel constriction.
Platelet Plug Formation – Platelets stick to injury.
Coagulation (Clotting) – Fibrin forms a stable clot.
19.5B - Clot Regulation & Removal
Regulation: Anticoagulants like heparin prevent excessive clotting.
Clot Removal: Plasmin dissolves clots (fibrinolysis).
19.6A - ABO Blood Group System
Determined by antigens (A & B) on RBCs.
Four types: A, B, AB, O.
19.6B - ABO Incompatibility in Transfusion
Mismatch can trigger an immune response.
Type O = universal donor; Type AB = universal recipient.
19.6C - Rh Blood Group
Rh-positive (has Rh antigen).
Rh-negative (lacks Rh antigen).
19.6D - Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)
Occurs when an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-positive baby.
Mother’s immune system attacks fetal RBCs in future pregnancies.
Prevented with RhoGAM injection.
Hematocrit (RBC %): Males 42-52%, Females 37-47%.
Hemoglobin: Males 13-18 g/dL, Females 12-16 g/dL.
WBC Count: 4,000-11,000 per μL.
Platelet Count: 150,000-450,000 per μL.
19.7B - Disorders with Abnormal Blood Test Values
Anemia: Low RBCs or hemoglobin.
Leukemia: High WBC count due to cancer.
Thrombocytopenia: Low platelet count, causing bleeding.