Political Philosophy Midterm - Study guide

Who was Leo Strauss and what philosophical tradition did he belong to?

Leo Strauss was a political philosopher associated with the neo-Kantian tradition

• Neo-Kantians sought to ground philosophy in the investigation of the conditions of knowledge.

• They sought to face challenges to traditional philosophy from nineteenth-century scientific advancements.

What is reductio ad Hitlerum, and who coined the term?

term coined by Leo Strauss to critique arguments that dismiss ideas simply because they were associated with Hitler or the Nazis.

How did modernity impact political philosophy according to Strauss?

Modernity led political philosophy away from its classical roots.

Why are politics and philosophy inherently irreconcilable according to Strauss?

Politics and philosophy have incompatible goals; politics focuses on practical governance, while philosophy seeks truth.

What was Strauss’s view on objectivity in social science?

Strauss rejected the idea that social science can be purely objective or free of value judgments.

How does Plato’s Republic compare to democracy in developing the best human types?

While Plato’s Republic suggests philosopher-kings are ideal rulers, democracy allows the best human types to develop freely. Plato's Republic argues for an ideal society governed by philosopher-kings, contrasting with democracy's emphasis on individual freedom and development of diverse human types.

What is true wisdom according to Strauss?

True wisdom comes from recognizing the limits of human knowledge.

What is Plato's "ideal city" based on?

Plato’s ideal city is based on justice, where each class performs its proper function, ensuring harmony.

What is the Allegory of the Cave?

The Allegory of the Cave illustrates how perception can be deceiving and true knowledge comes from philosophical enlightenment. In Plato's "Allegory of the Cave," a group of prisoners chained in a cave only see shadows cast on the wall by objects behind them, believing these shadows to be reality; when one prisoner escapes, ascends to the outside world and experiences true reality, he struggles to return to the cave and convince the others of the truth, but they resist due to their ingrained perception of the shadows as reality, representing how most people rely on their senses to understand the world rather than seeking deeper knowledge and truth. 

How does Plato define justice in the city and soul?

Justice occurs when each class in the city and each part of the soul performs its proper function without interfering with the others.

What are the three parts of Plato’s tripartite soul, and what do they correspond to in the city?

• Reason → Guardians (rulers), guided by wisdom

• Spirit → Auxiliaries (soldiers), guided by courage

• Appetite → Producers (workers, merchants, farmers, artisans), guided by moderation

How does justice impact individuals and society according to Plato?

Justice leads to wisdom, virtue, and happiness, while injustice results in ignorance and misery.

What are the five political systems ranked by Plato, and what souls correspond to them?

• Aristocracy (best, ruled by wisdom) → Rational soul

• Timocracy (honor-driven, military rule) → Spirited soul

• Oligarchy (wealth-driven rule) → Appetitive soul

• Democracy (freedom-focused, unstable) → Unruly soul

• Tyranny (worst, ruled by a despot) → Enslaved soul

What is a despot?

A despot is an absolute ruler who wields power oppressively and often without the consent of the governed, typically characterized by authoritarianism and a lack of democratic processes.

What is the purpose of the polis (city-state) according to Aristotle?

The polis exists for the sake of achieving a good life.

Why does Aristotle call humans "political animals"?

Humans are political animals because they have speech and can distinguish between just and unjust.

What role do moderation and justice play in Aristotle’s ideal state?

The ideal state promotes moderation and justice, ensuring that everyone fulfills their proper role. Moderation fosters harmony, while justice ensures fairness and equity among citizens.

How does Aristotle define a citizen?

A citizen is defined by participation in decision-making and holding office, but this depends on the regime.

According to Aristotle, are the virtues of a good citizen and a good person always the same?

No, Aristotle argues that the virtues of a good citizen and a good person are not always the same.

What are Aristotle’s categories of government?

Correct Forms:

• Monarchy (rule by one for the common good)

• Aristocracy (rule by the best)

• Polity (rule by the many in the common interest)

Deviant Forms:

• Tyranny (monarchy for self-interest)

• Oligarchy (rule by the wealthy few)

• Democracy (rule by the poor majority in their own interest)

What is the best practical regime according to Aristotle?

The best practical regime is a mix of oligarchy and democracy, called a polity.

According to Aristotle, why is the middle class important for political stability?

he middle class prevents extreme conflicts between the rich and poor, ensuring stability.

What is the best life according to Aristotle?

The best life is one of virtue, which leads to happiness.

What makes a regime the best according to Aristotle?

The best regime is one that allows citizens to live virtuously and happily.

How does Hobbes describe the state of nature?

The state of nature is a perpetual state of war, where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."

According to Hobbes, what drives conflict in the state of nature?

People are driven by competition, diffidence (fear of others), and the desire for glory, leading to constant conflict.

According to Hobbes, do right and wrong, justice and injustice, or property exist in the state of nature?

No, in the state of nature, right and wrong, justice and injustice, and property do not exist.

What is Hobbes’ solution to escaping the state of nature?

Individuals must form a social contract, giving up certain freedoms in exchange for security and peace.

What are Hobbes' first and second natural laws?

1. First natural law – Seek peace.

2. Second natural law – Lay down the right to defend one's life by force in exchange for protection

According to Hobbes, what is a commonwealth, and why is it necessary?

A commonwealth is a political community created for security. It ensures safety and enforces the social contract.

What is the role of the sovereign in Hobbes’ philosophy?

The sovereign (a ruler or assembly) must hold absolute authority to maintain peace and order.

How does Hobbes define liberty?

Liberty exists within the law; individuals are free as long as they do not break the sovereign's laws.

What form of government does Hobbes defend?

Hobbes defends monarchy and absolute sovereignty, arguing that only a single authority can preserve order and prevent chaos.

What is Locke’s view of the state of nature?

The state of nature is a state of perfect freedom and equality where humans coexist peacefully if they respect natural rights.

When does the state of war arise according to Locke?

The state of war arises when someone uses force to infringe on another's rights.

What is Locke’s labor theory of value?

Individuals acquire ownership of resources by mixing their labor with them.

How does civil society emerge in Locke’s philosophy?

Civil society emerges when individuals consent to form a government that will protect their natural rights.

What is the Lockean Proviso?

The Lockean Proviso states that individuals can appropriate resources through labor, as long as enough is left for others.

What are natural rights according to Locke

According to John Locke, natural rights are the rights to "life, liberty, and property," which he believed were inherent to all humans and existed before the formation of any government; essentially meaning everyone is born with these fundamental rights that cannot be taken away. 

How is government legitimacy established in Locke’s view?

Societies are based on collective consent, either explicit or tacit, and the social contract forms the foundation of government.

Why is majority rule important in Locke’s theory?

Majority rule ensures fair decision-making in government based on collective consent.

What is the primary purpose of government according to Locke?

To protect life, liberty, and property.

What is Locke’s view on separation of powers?

The legislative power must act within the law and serve the common good.

According to Locke, when do people have the right to overthrow their government?

A government that abuses its power loses legitimacy, and people have the right to overthrow it.

How does Rousseau challenge previous philosophers' views on the state of nature?

He argues that they misunderstood it by basing their ideas on civilized man rather than natural man. Rousseau argues that they project characteristics of modern, socially conditioned humans onto their descriptions of the natural human condition. Instead of viewing early humans as either warlike (Hobbes) or rational property-owners (Locke), Rousseau describes natural man as:

• Isolated and self-sufficient – Unlike Hobbes' view, Rousseau’s natural humans were not in constant conflict; they lived solitary, simple lives.

• Guided by two instincts – Amour de soi (self-preservation) and pitié (natural compassion for others). These instincts allowed humans to survive without harming each other.

• Free from greed and ambition – Before property, inequality, and competition arose, early humans had no reason to dominate or exploit others.

What is Rousseau’s view of the state of nature?

The state of nature is happy and peaceful because there is no competition, while civilization creates a state of war.

What event led to conflict and violence in human society, according to Rousseau?

The creation of property marked the transition from the state of nature to civil society, leading to inequality and conflict.

What does Rousseau’s Social Contract define?

It defines the foundation of legitimate political authority, distinguishing between natural liberty and civil liberty. -

Natural Liberty – The unrestricted freedom individuals have in the state of nature.

Civil Liberty – The freedom individuals gain by entering into a social contract, where they obey laws they collectively create, ensuring equality and the common good.

Legitimate government arises when individuals give up absolute freedom in exchange for membership in a political community governed by the general will—the shared interests of all citizens. This ensures that laws reflect the common good, not the desires of a ruling elite.

According to Rousseau, how did civilization contribute to inequality among men?

As civilization developed, humans became more unequal due to distinctions in wealth, power, and social status.

According to Rousseau what is the difference between natural liberty and civil liberty.

According to Rousseau, "natural liberty" refers to the absolute freedom an individual has in a state of nature, limited only by their own strength, while "civil liberty" is the freedom one enjoys within a society, where individuals surrender some of their natural liberty in exchange for the benefits of the social contract, and their actions are governed by the "general will" of the community; essentially, trading unlimited personal freedom for the protection and stability of society. 

According to Rousseau, what is the general will, and why is it important?

The general will represents the common good and is the foundation of legitimate political authority. It must guide the state.

How did Burke view society and tradition?

Society is a continuous partnership across generations, where customs and institutions should be preserved rather than radically restructured.

What was Burke’s stance on universal rights?

He warned against universal, abstract rights detached from historical and cultural contexts, favoring rights that evolved within society.

Why did Burke oppose dismantling institutions like the monarchy and aristocracy?

He feared it would lead to mob rule and tyranny

How did Burke define the social contract?

The social contract included past, present, and future generations, acting as a sacred bond that ensured social stability.

Did Burke see the social contract as flexible?

No, he viewed it as a sacred, enduring bond, not a flexible agreement open to constant renegotiation.

What did Burke predict about the French Revolution?

He predicted it would lead to instability and violence, rather than a Glorious Revolution outcome.

What is Mill’s Harm Principle?

The only justifiable reason to interfere with someone’s liberty is to prevent harm to others, not for their own good.

What are Mill’s three areas of liberty?

1. Liberty of thought and speech

2. Liberty to pursue happiness

3. Liberty to associate with others

What are Mill’s four key arguments against censorship?

1. The suppressed opinion may be true

2. Even false opinions may contain partial truths.

3. Unchallenged truths become prejudices, not rational beliefs.

4. Without opposition, even true beliefs lose vitality and meaning.

Why is individuality important according to Mill?

Individuality is essential for both happiness and societal progress.

Does Mill believe in a formal social contract?

No, but he argues that individuals still owe obligations to society. He believes individuals are not bound by a formal contract to society, but rather by the principle of maximizing overall happiness

What obligations do individuals have to society?

A person must not harm others or violate shared social expectations

What is a right according to Kant

• A right is something that can be enforced without violating the freedom of others.

• It is based on universal moral principles and rational autonomy.

• Rights exist within the realm of external actions, meaning they govern how individuals interact rather than internal moral duties.

• A right is compatible with everyone’s freedom under a universal law, meaning it must be applicable to all rational beings equally

What is the ideal government to Hobbes

According to Thomas Hobbes, the ideal government is an absolute monarchy, where a single sovereign holds complete power and authority, as this is the only way to ensure stability and prevent the chaos of a "state of nature" where individuals are constantly at war with each other. 

What is the ideal government to Locke

According to John Locke, the ideal government is a limited, constitutional government based on the consent of the governed that primarily protects citizens' natural rights to life, liberty, and property, with a strong emphasis on a legislative branch that acts as a check on executive power; essentially, a representative government with checks and balances that operates under the principle of popular sovereignty

What is the ideal government to Rousseau

According to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the ideal government is a direct democracy where citizens directly participate in lawmaking and governance, expressing what he called the "general will" - essentially the collective good of the people, ensuring that the government acts in the best interests of the community as a whole. 

What is the ideal government to Kant

Representative government:

• Kant believed that a system where citizens elect representatives to make decisions is preferable to direct democracy, which he saw as susceptible to mob rule. 

What is the ideal government to Plato

According to Plato, the ideal government is a philosophical aristocracy, where rule is held by "philosopher-kings" - highly educated individuals with a deep understanding of justice and truth, who govern based on reason and not personal interests; essentially, a system where the most capable and wise individuals lead the state. 

What is the ideal government to Mill

representative democracy

Allegory of the Cave

Allegory of the cave: humans underground – born that way // they can only see what is in front of them, which is a projection of the objects being carried by people near the wall (prisoners mistake the shadows for reality) // one of the prisoners gets out, they would be able to see clearly (after a while) and recognize that the sun (reason) is the source of their ability to see // the enlightened prisoner feels compelled to return to the cave to help others but struggles to adjust back to the darkness The cave represents the realm of ignorance // journey out of the cave symbolizes the philosopher’s ascent toward knowledge of the Forms, culminating in the understanding of the Form of the Good

According to Aristotle, why is man by nature a political animal?

because we have speech (unlike animals) // animals can make noises that suggest pain and pleasure but they cannot differentiate between just and unjust // everything is defined by function and capacity

Who claims that property is not a thing in the state of nature

Hobbes

Who believes in the absolute authority of the sovereign

Hobbes

According to Locke how does the state of war arise?

When someone uses force to violate another’s rights

Rousseau’s state of nature

Primitive civilization: post-language and settlements but precompetition

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's social contract theory

Government should be based on the general will of the people. This general will is the collective idea of what's best for the community.

Mill on Paternalism

Mill's central project was antagonistic to paternalism – the protection of competent adults irrespective of their expressed desires – because it is 'better for them'. Mill opposed regulation of 'self-regarding' behaviour, which affects only or at least primarily the person concerned.