sociology exam 1

anti-positivism

the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values

conflict theory

a theory that looks at society as a competition for limited resources

constructivism

an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be

culture

a group’s shared practices, values, beliefs

dramaturgical analysis

a technique sociologists use in which they view society through the metaphor of theatrical performance

dynamic equilibrium

a stable state in which all parts of a healthy society work together properly

dysfunctions

social patterns that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society

figuration

the process of simultaneously analyzing the behavior of an individual and the society that shapes that behavior

function

the part of a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity

functionalism

a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society

generalized others

the organized and generalized attitude of a social group

grand theories

an attempt to explain large-scale relationships and answer fundamental questions such as why societies form and why they change

hypothesis

a testable proposition

latent functions

the unrecognized or unintended consequences of a social process

macro-level

a wide-scale view of the role of social structures within a society

manifest functions

sought consequences of a social process

micro-level theories

the study of specific relationships between individuals or small groups

paradigms

philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them

positivism

the scientific study of social patterns

qualitative sociology

in-depth interviews, focus groups, and/or analysis of content sources as the source of its data

quantitative sociology

statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants

reification

an error of treating an abstract concept as though it has a real, material existence

significant others

specific individuals that impact a person’s life

social facts

the laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and all of the cultural rules that govern social life

social institutions

patterns of beliefs and behaviors focused on meeting social needs

social solidarity

the social ties that bind a group of people together such as kinship, shared location, and religion

society

a group of people who lived in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture

sociological imagination

the ability to understand how your own past relates to that of other people, as well as to history in general and societal structures in particular

sociology

the systematic study of society and social interaction

symbolic interactionism

a theoretical perspective through which scholars examine the relationship of individuals within their society by studying their communication (language and symbols)

theory

a proposed explanation about social interactions or society

accuracy

using a tool that makes the measuring more precise

case study

in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual

code of ethics

a set of guidelines that the ASA has established to foster ethical research and professionally responsible scholarship in sociology

content analysis

applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as it relates to the study at hand

correlation

when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable but does not necessarily indicate causation

debunking

looking beyond the obvious to expose falseness by examining merit, logic, and evidence

dependent variable

a variable changed by other variables

empirical evidence

evidence that comes from direct observations, scientifically gathered data, or experimentation

ethnography

participating and observing thinking and behavior in a social setting

experiment

the testing of a hypothesis under controlled conditions

field research

gathering data from a natural environment without doing a lab experiment or a survey

hawthorne effect

when study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcherh

independent variable

variable that causes changes in dependent variables

interpretive framework

a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction, not based on hypothesis testing

interview

a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject

literature review

a scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research

nonreactive research

using secondary data, does not include direct contact with research subjects and does not alter or influence people’s behaviors

operational definition

specific explanation of abstract concept that a researcher plans to study

participant observation

when a researcher immerses themselves in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an insider perspective

population

a defined group serving as the subject of a study

primary data

data that are collected directly from firsthand experience

qualitative data

non-numerical descriptive data that is often subjective and based on what is experienced in a natural setting

quantitative data

data collected in numerical form that can be counted and analyzed using statistics

random sample

a study’s participants being randomly selected to serve as a representation of a larger population

reliability

a measure of a study’s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced

samples

small, manageable number of subjects that represent the population

scientific method

an established scholarly research that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing a data collection method, gathering data, and drawing conclusions

secondary data analysis

using data collected by others and applying new interpretations

surveys

collect data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about thinking, behaviors, and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire

validity

the degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study

value neutrality

a practice of remaining impartial, without bias or judgment during the course of a study and in publishing results

beliefs

tenets or convictions that people hold to be true

countercultures

groups that reject and oppose society’s widely accepted cultural patterns

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are globally common to all societies

culture

shared beliefs, values, and practices

culture lag

the gap of time between the introduction of material and nonmaterial culture’s acceptance of it

diffusion

the spread of material and nonmaterial culture from one culture to another

discoveries

things and ideas found from what already exists

ethnocentrism

the evaluation and judgment of another culture based on one’s own cultural norms

folkways

direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture

formal norms

established, written rules

globalization

the integration of international trade and finance markets

high culture

the cultural patterns of a society’s elite

ideal culture

the standards a society would like to embrace and live up to

informal norms

casual behaviors that are generally and widely conformed to

innovations

new objects or ideas introduced to culture for the first time

inventions

a combination of pieces of existing reality into new forms

language

a symbolic system of communication

mores

the moral views and principles of a group

norms

the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured

popular culture

mainstream, widespread patterns among a society’s population

real cultue

the way society really is based on what actually occurs and exists

sanctions

a way to authorize or formally disapprove of certain behaviors

sapir-whorf hypothesis

the way that people understand the world based on their form of language

social control

a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms

subcultures

groups that share a specific identification, apart from a society’s majority, even as the members exist within a larger society

symbols

gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture

values

a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society

achieved status

the status a person chooses, such as a level of education or income

agricultural societies

societies that rely on farming as a way of life

alienation

an individual’s isolation from his society, his work, and his sense of self

anomie

a situation in which society no longer has the support of a firm collective consciousness

ascribed status

the status outside of an individual’s control, such as sex or race

bourgeoisie

the owners of the means of production in a society

capitalism

a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and companies rather than by the government

class consciousness

the awareness of one’s rank in society

collective conscience

the communal beliefs, morals, and attitudes of a society

false consciousness

a condition in which the beliefs, ideals, or ideology of a person are not in the person’s own best interest

feudal societies

societies that operate on a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and protection