MCAT Words to know

Transmembrane Domain

Hydrophobic regions of proteins that span the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane.

Function: A feature of membrane proteins and are responsible for targeting proteins to different compartments of the secretory pathway

Phosphorylation

The addition of a phosphoryl (PO3) group to a molecule. In biological systems, this reaction is vital for the cellular storage and transfer of free energy using energy carrier molecules.

Catalysts

A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction, or lowers the temperature or pressure needed to start one, without itself being consumed during the reaction.

Glycoloysis

The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH in the process.

Gluconeogenesis

A metabolic process that produces glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon sources, such as lipids and proteins.

It occurs in the liver and kidneys, and is primarily responsible for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting.

Opporant Conditioning

A learning method that uses rewards and punishments to modify voluntary behaviors.

Super Ego

A part of the psyche that represents a person's moral standards, values, and sense of guilt

Ego

A person's sense of self, a part of the mind, and a brand of outdoor power equipment

Id

The impulsive, instinctual part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle.

Mostly unconscious and is driven by pleasure and repulsed by pain.

Psychodynamic Theory

A psychological approach that explains human behavior, feelings, and emotions through the lens of unconscious psychological processes. It's based on the idea that childhood experiences are a critical factor in shaping personality and behavior in later life.

Classical conditioning

a type of unconscious learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that produces a natural response

Pavolv’s : Salvation of dogs with bell with meat

Unconditioned Response

An automatic, reflexive, and unlearned reaction to a stimulus. It's a part of classical conditioning, a process where a response is conditioned by pairing a stimulus with something that naturally triggers a response

Conditioned Response

A behavior that does not come naturally, but must be learned by the individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus.

Habituation

A basic form of learning that occurs when a person or animal decreases their response to a stimulus after repeated exposure

Classical conditioning

A type of unconscious learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that produces a natural response

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a Conditioned Response (CR) that has been extinguished.

Ex: Pavlov and his classical conditioning experiments found that spontaneous recovery can occur after a period of not being exposed to the Conditioned Stimulus

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.

Behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, while behavior that is punished is prone to happen less.

Skinner

He developed the theory of "operant conditioning,"

This emphasizes how behavior can be shaped through positive and negative reinforcement, essentially meaning that actions with positive consequences are more likely to be repeated,

Positive VS Negative

Add a stimulus

Take away a stimulus

Reinforcement Vs punishment

Encouragement

Discouragement

Escape Learning

A type of negative reinforcement in which one distances themself once they are presented with an undesirable stimulus or performs a behavior to stop that stimulus once it begins to occur.

Avoidance Learning

A negative reinforcement, and is a type of conditioning procedure where an organism learns to minimize or prevent contact with unpleasant events. 

Continuous Reinforcement

The repeated reinforcement of a behavior every time it happens. This can involve positive (adding a stimulus) or negative (removing a stimulus) reinforcement, with the goal of encouraging certain actions.

Partical Reinforcement

A learning technique where a desired behavior is only reinforced some of the time, rather than every time it occurs.

Fixed VS Variable

Fixed:

-Predictable

-Consistent

Example: Receiving a reward after completing exactly 5 tasks.

Variable:

-Unpredictable

-Fluctuating

Example: Receiving a reward after a random number of tasks, sometimes after 2, sometimes after 8.

Ratio Vs Interval

Interval means the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements

Ratio means the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements.

Instinctive Drift

A phenomenon where an animal's learned behaviors are disrupted by their natural instincts, causing them to revert to behaviors that are more in line with their evolutionary history

Observational Learning

A social learning process where people learn new skills, behaviors, or attitudes by observing and imitating others

Latent Learning

A type of learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior. It becomes apparent when there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Shadowing

In cognitive psychology, blank is a task where participants repeat aloud a message as it is being presented to them, typically while another distracting message is also playing

Left Hemisphere

Controls the language and logic part of the mind. More “dominate” side.

Right Hemisphere

Controls the creative part of the mind

Adolesence

The study of the psychological and physical changes that occur during the transition from childhood to adulthood

Epigenetic’s

The study of how environmental factors and behaviors can alter how genes are expressed, without changing the DNA sequence.

Sociology Approach

Examines how social structures and cultural norms influence behavior and society.

Phycology Approach

Focuses on how mental processes and experiences shape individual behavior.

Biology Approach

Studies how genetics, brain function, and physiology influence behavior and mental processes.

Ekmans List of Emotions

Basic emotions include

happiness,

sadness,

anger,

fear,

surprise,

disgust, and

contempt.

Freud Stage

The five psychosexual stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital, each focusing on different areas of pleasure and development.

Piaget's Stages

Four stages of cognitive development are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Kohlberg Stage

Three levels of moral development are pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional, each with two stages.

Erickson Stage

Eight stages of psychosocial development, each with a key conflict, from trust vs. mistrust to integrity vs. despair.

Social Constructionlism

Idea placed on an object/event by society

Symbolic Interactionalism

Use of verbal, written, or physical communication and subjective understanding, through an INTERACTION

Requires a symbol that has meaning that makes sense to a part of society

EX: A wedding ring symbolizes love and commitment, but its meaning depends on shared societal understanding.

Functionalism

All of society should serve a function for the society

Conflict Theory

Society is in everlasting conflict for limited resources

Retrospective Designs

A study that looks back at past events or data to find patterns or relationships.

Cross Sectional Designs

A study that examines data from a population at a single point in time to identify patterns or relationships.

Qualitative Research Designs

Focuses on exploring behaviors, experiences, and meanings through non-numerical data like interviews and observations.

Difficulty using Experiments

Challenges include ethical concerns, controlling variables, and ensuring real-world applicability.

Genes + Environment =

Behavior/ Who we are

Instinctual Behaviors

Innate, automatic responses to stimuli that occur without learning.

Temperament

An individual’s innate personality traits influencing behavior and emotional responses.

Endocrine

The system of glands that release hormones to regulate body functions and behavior.

Nature vs Nurture

Debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) has a greater influence on behavior and development.

Heritability 1 vs 0

A value of 1 means traits are entirely genetic, while 0 means traits are entirely environmental.

Psychological Trait Heritability

The extent to which genetic factors contribute to differences in psychological traits within a population. Ranges from 0.3-0.6

Schizophrenia Trait Heritability

The heritability of schizophrenia is about 0.8, indicating a strong genetic influence, though environmental factors also play a role. (NOT 80%)

PKU Mutation

A genetic disorder caused by mutations in the PAH gene, leading to an inability to metabolize phenylalanine.

Gene Expression

The process by which genetic information is used to produce proteins, influencing traits and functions.

Methylation

A chemical modification of DNA that regulates gene expression by turning genes on or off.

Prenatal Development

The process of growth and development in the womb, from conception to birth, across germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.

1st, 2nd, 3rd Trimester

1st Trimester: Early development of organs, brain, and spinal cord; high risk of miscarriage.
2nd Trimester: Growth and movement, organ development continues, and fetus becomes viable.
3rd Trimester: Rapid growth, lung development, and preparation for birth.

Palmar Grasp Reflex

An infant's automatic response to grasp an object placed in their palm.

Moro Reflex

An infant's startle response to a sudden loss of support, involving spreading arms, retracting them, and crying.

Babinski Reflex

An infant's toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked.

Rooting Reflex

An infant's automatic response to turn their head and open their mouth when their cheek is stroked.

Sucking Reflex

An infant's automatic response to suck when something touches the roof of their mouth.

Adolescence

The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood, marked by physical, emotional, and social changes.

Sex Hormones

Hormones like estrogen and testosterone that influence sexual development, reproduction, and secondary sexual characteristics.

12-24 Month Babies

Toddlers begin walking, talking, exploring, and developing motor skills and social interactions.

2 year Babies

Toddlers show improved motor skills, form simple sentences, and begin asserting independence.

3+ year Babies

Preschoolers develop advanced language, social skills, and imaginative play, while gaining more independence.

Tropic Hormones

Hormones that target endocrine glands to stimulate the release of other hormones, such as TSH (stimulates the thyroid) and ACTH (stimulates the adrenal cortex).

Direct Hormones

Act directly on target tissues to produce an effect, without stimulating other glands. Examples include prolactin (stimulates milk production) and GH (promotes growth).

Endocrine System

A network of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions, including metabolism, growth, reproduction, and homeostasis.

Endocrine System within Behavior

Releases hormones that affect mood, energy, stress responses, and social behaviors. Key examples include cortisol (stress response), oxytocin (social bonding), and testosterone (aggression and libido).

Tropic Hormones

Target the other endocrine glands

Causes the secretion of other hormones

Hypothamus

Converts nervous system input into endocrine signals

Releases high level hormones

Anterior Pituitary

Part of the endocrine system, releases tropic and direct hormones:

• Tropic hormones: TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH

• Direct hormones: GH, prolactin, endorphins

Posterior Pituitary

Releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus:

• ADH (antidiuretic hormone): Regulates water balance by acting on the kidneys.

• Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and promotes bonding.

Thyroid and what it controlls

Regulates metabolism, growth, and development by releasing:

• T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine): Control metabolic rate and energy use.

• Calcitonin: Lowers blood calcium levels by promoting calcium storage in bones.

Parathyroid

Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption, calcium absorption in the intestines, and calcium reabsorption in the kidneys.

Adrenal Cortex (outer layer)

• Cortisol: Helps regulate metabolism, the stress response, and inflammation.

• Aldosterone: Manages blood pressure by controlling sodium and water balance in the kidneys.

• Androgens: Contribute to secondary sexual characteristics (like pubic hair).

Adrenal Medulla

• Epinephrine (adrenaline): Increases heart rate and energy during stress ("fight or flight" response).

• Norepinephrine (noradrenaline): Supports blood pressure and alertness in stressful situations.

Harbinger

Signals or foreshadows the arrival of something, like an early indicator of a trend, behavior, or societal change.

Basal Ganglia

A group of nuclei in the forebrain that are involved in motor control, learning, emotion

Can affect OCD

CARS Terms Standard, However, Only

Standard: The author is about to disagree

However: (Any Transition word) This will lead to authors opinion

Only: (Strong words) No wiggle room, NEVER choose these

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in social bonding, trust, emotional connection, and behaviors like maternal care and pair bonding.

Prolactin

A hormone that stimulates milk production in females and plays a role in maternal behavior and immune regulation.

Hunger:

Leptin

Ghrelin

NPY

• Leptin: Decrease hunger

• Ghrelin: Stimulates hunger (hunger hormone).

• NPY (Neuropeptide Y): A brain neurotransmitter that promotes hunger and food intake, especially during energy deficits. Stimulates appetite.

Epinephrine and Location

Also known as adrenaline, it is a hormone and neurotransmitter that increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy during the "fight or flight" response.

Location: Produced by the adrenal medulla, the inner part of the adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys.

Norepinephrine and Location

A hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the "fight or flight" response, increasing alertness, focus, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Location: Produced by the adrenal medulla and released by neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Cortisol and Location

A hormone that helps regulate metabolism, blood sugar, and the body’s stress response by increasing energy availability and suppressing non-essential functions.

Location: Produced by the adrenal cortex, the outer layer of the adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys.

Thyroid Hormone

Hormones (T3 and T4) that regulate metabolism, energy production, growth, and development.

Location: Produced by the thyroid gland, located in the neck below the Adam’s apple.

Hyperthyroidism

High levels, increases irritability

Hypothyroidism

Low levels; increases fatigue and depression

Auditory Pathway

The neural pathway that transmits sound information from the ear to the brain for processing.

Axon

The long, slender part of a neuron that transmits electrical signals from the cell body to the axon terminals, where the signal is passed to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons and transmit them toward the cell body.