Ap Psych Unit 2

Cognition

Mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking.

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects, ideas, or people.

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a category.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize information.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new information.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing options to one correct answer.

Divergent thinking

Producing many creative solutions.

Functional fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

Executive functions

Planning, decision-making, and control processes.

Algorithm

Step-by-step method that guarantees a solution.

Heuristic

Mental shortcut; fast but can cause errors.

Availability heuristic

Judging likelihood based on what comes easily to mind.

Representative heuristic

Judging based on how well something matches a prototype.

Mental set

Tendency to approach problems the same way.

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations.

Framing

How something is presented influences decisions.

Gambler’s fallacy

Belief that random events are influenced by previous ones.

Sunken-cost fallacy

Continuing something because you’ve already invested in it.

Long-term potentiation

Strengthening of neural connections from repeated use.

Explicit memory

Conscious memory of facts and events.

Implicit memory

Unconscious memory, like skills.

Semantic memory

Memory of facts and meanings.

Episodic memory

Memory of personal experiences.

Procedural memory

Memory of how to perform skills.

Encoding

Putting information into memory.

Storage

Retaining information over time.

Retrieval

Getting information out of memory.

Working memory model

Includes central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

Multi-store model

Sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory.

Sensory memory

Very brief memory from senses.

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory.

Echoic memory

Auditory sensory memory.

Short-term memory

Holds small amounts of info for about 20 seconds.

Long-term memory

Permanent and unlimited storage.

Automatic vs. effortful processing

Automatic is unconscious; effortful requires attention.

Levels of processing model

Deeper processing improves memory.

Method of loci

Memory strategy using locations as cues.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

Spacing effect

Learning is better when spread out over time.

Serial position effect

Better recall of first and last items.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to maintain it.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new info to what you already know.

Autobiographical memory

Memory of personal life experiences.

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall past memories.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Infantile amnesia

Inability to remember early childhood.

Recall vs recognition

Recall requires retrieval without cues; recognition uses cues.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help you remember information.

Context-dependent memory

Better recall in the same environment where learning happened.

State-dependent memory

Better recall in the same internal state (mood/body state).

Mood-congruent memory

Current mood makes matching memories easier to recall.

Testing effect

Testing yourself improves long-term retention.

Forgetting curve

Memory fades quickly at first, then levels off.

Proactive interference

Old information blocks new information.

Retroactive interference

New information blocks old information.

Misinformation effect

False or distorted memories caused by misleading info.

Source amnesia

Forgetting where information came from.

Repression

Unconscious pushing away of painful memories.

Imagination inflation

Recalling an imagined event as real.

General intelligence (g)

A single factor underlying all mental abilities.

Construct validity

Whether a test measures what it claims to measure.

Predictive validity

Whether a test predicts future performance.

Test-retest reliability

Consistent scores over time.

Split-half reliability

Consistency between two halves of a test.

Stereotype threat

Fear of confirming a stereotype hurts performance.

Stereotype lift

Positive stereotype boosts performance.

Achievement test

Measures what you’ve learned.

Aptitude test

Measures potential or ability to learn.

Fixed mindset

Belief that abilities can’t change.

Growth mindset

Belief that abilities can improve with effort.