unit 3 british empire

anticipations of how britain would fight in ww1

with limited help from the empire

britain's manpower

2.7 million men from colonies

5 million men from the british isles

what did the empire provide for britain to aid its victory

vital raw materials and food

significance of colonies supporting britain during ww1

pressured britain to allow colonial leaders to have a greater say in the direction britain was taking from their troops

imperial war cabinet

assembled in 1917

symbolised union of the british empire

was the imperial war cabinet successful in promoting unity between britain and its colonies

no - only held two sessions, mostly represented white and elite opinions, britain dominated proceedings

attitudes of dominions regarding fighting in the war

enthusiastic to fight alongside britain, although leaders were insistent on maintaining national identities

indigenous contribution to dominions' war effort

canada - 4000+ first nations people volunteered

australia - 1000 indigenous australians + 2500 maori people fought

how long did the wave of enthusiasm to fight last (in dominions)

until 1915

conscription introduced in new zealand (1916) and canada (1917)

canada's contributions to the war effort

1/3 of the munitions used in france from 1917-18

wheat

dominions' important contributions to battles

new zealanders in Gallipoli campaign

canadians at Vimy Ridge

south african contribution to war effort (headed by general smuts

formed South African Defence Force - fought against german army in colonies

smuts attended london imperial war conference and advised on military strategy in europe

south african manpower

136,000 white south africans fought in the middle east and on the western front

what did ww1 mainly demonstrate

dominions' loyalty to britain

dominions' opposition to the war effort - canada

french canadians in quebec thought the war was a pro-british affair

rioted against conscription in march 1918

dominions' opposition to the war effort - australia

australians rejected conscription in two referendums (1916+ 1917)

dominions' opposition to the war effort - south africa

south african republican movement grew

afrikaner movement questioned the imperial connection

dominions' losses in ww1

60,000 australians

16,000 new zealanders

7000 south africans

(+ injuries and trauma)

how did ww1 affect dominions' attitudes to british sovereignty

bolstered nationalism

increased desire for independence

which part of the empire contributed the most to the war effort

india

how many servicemen from india enlisted to fight

1.3 million volunteers (conscription never introduced in india)

x4 as many as canada, australia, new zealand and south africa combined

where did indian soldiers contribute significantly

france - 1/3 in 1914 were either british or indian

middle east

africa

how many indian soldiers were killed in action

over 74,000

what did britain promise to give india in acknowledgement of its contribution to the war effort (1917)

secretary of state for india (montagu) promised more responsible self-government for india, which entailed a measure of democratic representation for ordinary indians

egyptian contribution to war effort

1.2 million egyptians recruited to defend egypt and the middle east

100,000 fought in europe (50% died)

who from africa was not allowed to fight in europe alongside the british army as equals

servicemen from east and west africa and black south africans

reflected hierarchy of racial superiority

what work were black africans allowed to do

fought in the african theatre of war against german-led soldiers eg west africa regiment

europe - only allowed to work as labourers or carriers

black soldiers joining human porters

forced to fight against the germans in tanganyika

100,000 dead

impact of africans' experience in war on independence movement

formative in the development of independence movements

first pan african congress held in france 1919

delegation from south africa attended versailles peace conference in 1919 to present the african case

british west indies regiment

formed in 1915 after the war office allowed enlistment to begin from britain's carribean colonies

over 15,000 men joined

treatment of caribbean servicemen

not allowed to fight in europe alongside british and indian armies

relegated to dangerous roles, digging trenches and working in ammunition dumps

guiding principle of treaty of versailles

self-determination, but was at odds with french and british attitudes

attitudes to racism at treaty of versailles

britain, france and usa all reject a request from the japanese to include a clause about racial equality in the principles of the league of nations

which empires lost their colonies at post-war peace

ottoman empire and germany's empire

british and french attitudes regarding colonies in africa, the middle east and the pacific

argued that they were politically and economically underdeveloped with uneducated populations, so incapable of self-government

these countries were therefore in need of support from countries like france and britain

what were the mandate arrangements supposed to achieve

helping less developed territories become independent nations

in reality, britain and france sustained virtual control over their new mandates

how much did the british empire gain as a result of the post-war peace treaties

1.8 million square miles

13 million new subjects

territories gained by britain in post-war peace

palestine, transjordan, iraq

territories gained by dominions in post-war peace

union of south africa - namibia

australia - german new guinea

new zealand - western samoa

how were territories defined under the new mandate system

a system of categories reflecting how 'developed' a territory was considered to be

also mapped onto social and racial hierarchies

'a' category for territories

territories considered to be quite developed and independence was a viable possibility in the near future

britain - palestine and mesopotamia (iraq)

france - syria and lebanon

'b' category for territories

territories considered to require a much longer period of guidance before independence could be contemplated

britain - tanganyika

britain + france - togoland and cameroon

'c' category for territories

territories where independence was not feasible

britain - new guinea and samoa (in collaboration with australia and new zealand)

japan - german islands in the south pacific

why was the middle east crucial to britain

incorporated the mainland route to britain's indian and asian empire

close proximity to suez canal

palestine at the end of ww1

highly unstable

fighting between british and turkish troops

turkey enforcing conscription and seizing crops

arabs determined to control their own future

middle east divided up between france and britain

1915- france and britain secretly plotted to divide the middle east between them

france - northern iraq, syria, lebanon and southeastern turkey

britain - jordan, southern iraq and palestine

encouraged arab rebellions against the turkish empire

when was the balfour declaration

1917

balfour declaration

letter sent to walter rothschild expressing sympathy with the zionist cause

letter released to the press

promised british support of a national homeland for jews in palestine that would not undermine the rights of arab palestinians already in the territory

why did the balfour declaration come out

partly out of genuine sympathy for the plight of jews

also out of an attempt to win the support of anti-imperialist americans to an acceptance of british influence in the area

what was the issue with the balfour declaration

promises of the balfour declaration contradicted the palestinian mandate

british-sponsored zionist commission arrive in palestine

1918

muslim and christian arabs formed the muslim-christian association in response

violent clashes between muslims and jews between 1918-20

increased jewish population in palestine

1918 - 9% of the total population

1931 - 17% of total population

why did leading british politicians support zionism

anti-semitic view that jews were an internationally powerful group with large financial influence

believed supporting zionism would enable the allies to win over the support of the imagined powerful jews

when did ireland gain independence from britain

1922

when did egypt gain independence from britain

formal independence granted in 1922

continued to be a british client state until 1954

1936 anglo-egyptian treaty

british troops would withdraw from egypt but would continue to occupy and defend the suez canal

egypt joins the league of nations

iraq independence

britain rules iraq as a mandated territory 1920-1932 and provides protection for monarchial rule

iraq gains independence in 1932, although new gov maintains close economic and military ties with britain

conflict in ww1 vs ww2

ww1 had limited fighting within the empire itself

ww2 had a lot of fighting within empire eg southeast asia and northern africa

what was the most devastating loss for britain in southeast asia

singapore in 1942

it was britain's main military naval base in the region and its loss brought the largest surrender of british troops in history

major european imperial possessions seized by japan

hong kong, malaya and burma

seemed on set to attack india in 1942 (attack was averted)

what did the success of japan's military campaigns result in

ended the myth of white invincibility

inspired independence movements across southeast asia

indian national army (INA)

aimed to rid india and asia of the british

led by Subhas Chandra Bose from 1943 on

how many indian troops that had been captured by the british in singapore joined the indian national army

30,000

burma independence army

formed by independence leader Aung San under the guidance of the japanese

how many tonnes of war materials did india provide

3.7 million

how many soldiers did empire provide

2.7 million

singapore mutiny

850 indian soldiers mutiny for 1 week

fight for north africa

britain desperate to preserve its influence in egypt and access to suez and oil in middle east

germans came close to expelling the british - only driven back by battle of el alamein 1942

changed circumstances in britain in 1945

- weakened economic position

- first majority labour government elected

- independence movements had grown stronger

what did the 1919 government of india act hope to achieve

quell demands for greater indian representation

what did britain fear reforms would do

strengthen nationalist aspirations for faster change

combated this by combining reforms with a clear signal that any nationalists' attempts to create mass resistance would be ruthlessly suppressed

divisions in the indian nationalist movement

all india muslim leage (mujammad ali jinnah) argued for muslim rights and a separate, independent muslim state

hindu congress movement (mahatma gandhi) argued for a united indian state

which indian nationalist movement did the british favour

muslim league

'quit india' campaign

1942 response to britain's promise to grant india dominion status

pushed for britain to leave india entirely

gandhi and others arrested

why did the 1945 labour government decide to accept indian independence asap

- feared that there would be violent resistance if they tried to keep india which would stretch military resources to the limit

- indian army no longer reliable bc of actions of INA, so britain would have to deploy masses of british troops which would be expensive and unpopular

- india no longer the great market for british cotton exports it had been so the costs of holding onto it outweighed the benefits

indian independence

august 1947

india-pakistan partition

india divided into hindu-dominated india and muslim-dominated pakistan

led to extreme violence between muslims and hindus as people of both faiths fled their homeland for the security of the country where their religion dominated

how many died in the violence of indian partition

1 million

burma becomes independent

1948

impact of ww2 on palestine

increased jewish demand to migrate to palestine due to greater number of stateless jewish refugees

problems britain faced as a result of increased demand for jewish immigration to palestine

- most favoured jewish settlement to palestine (american and international opinion). britain needed american economic aid and also to retain allies in the middle east bc of oil in the region

- outbreaks of terrorism inside palestine from jewish settlers aganst british troops. britain didnt have the resources to police the state

3 possible solutions to the israeli-palestine problem

- unitary state: favoured by arab leaders who wanted to dominate, disliked by jewish leadership

- provicial autonomy: palestine divided into smaller, relatively autonomous provincial areas but led by a nationally elected gov. also rejected by jews bc it would still have arab rule

- partition of palestine into separate jewish and arab states: supported by jewish leaders, not acceptable to arabs

UN involvement in palestine

1947 britain seek UN's guidance - UN favours partition

britain withdraw from palestine and hand over control to a UN commission

what was colonial policy in india focused on 1914-1967

providing concessions to curb nationalism and keep the empire whole

dyarchy

system of rule where power is divided between two centres of authority

government of india act 1919

- viceroy retained control over major areas eg defence and foreign affairs

- provincial councils run by elected indian ministers, responsible for local govt, health, education, agriculture

- legislative council split into 2 houses where most of the members were elected

significance of 1919 GOI act

first step towards a system of dominion self-government

example of britain trying to appease nationalists' demands

simon commission 1929-30

reviewed the 1919 GOI act

recommended

- greater power for the provinces

- federal system of government

- defence, internal security and foreign affairs to remain under the viceroy's duties to ensure overall british control

why was the simon commission controversial

did not include any indian representation

round table conferences 1930-31

result of opposition from indian independence movement

gandhi represented the congress at the second conference

britain reject self-governing status for india bc of belief that non-white people were incapable and concern for india's strategic and economic importance for britain

government of india act 1935

- britain retain control of central government but give provinces self-government

- expansion of franchise from 7 million to 35 million people

indian reactions to 1935 GOI act

opposed by congress party - didnt give the amount of independence that the dominions had (congress wanted total independence from british rule)

princely states oppose - reject federal india, want to maintain independence from rest of india

indian discontent in 1939

members of congress-controlled ministries in the provinces resign in opposition to india's participation in ww2

two categories of britain's african colonies

1. indirectly ruled by british through existing local rulers

2. directly ruled by british officials, substantial number of european settlers who had some exclusive political representation

examples of african colonies with indirect rule

most colonies in west africa, uganda, nyasaland

examples of african colonies with direct rule

southern rhodesia and kenya

british colonial policy stressed the importance of...

promotion of colonies' economic and social development to

- increase their economic value to the empire

- improve the living standards of local populations

- consolidate the empire in the face of post-war independence

movements

british initiatives in their indirectly-ruled african colonies

1925 east africa - £10 million for improving rail and dock facilities

west africa - investment in education

agricultural research stations set up across africa

limitations of british initiatives in africa

all colonies expected to be self-financing

major projects funded by taxing local peoples which forced them into wage economics as colonial workers

colonial development act 1929

allocated £1 million of british treasury funds for development projects across the empire