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Flashcards of key vocabulary and concepts from the AP Exam Study Guide.
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Hypothesis
Tentative explanation that must be falsifiable
Operational Definition
Clear, precise, quantifiable definition of your variables, allowing replication and reliable data collection
Qualitative Data
Descriptive data (e.g., eye color)
Quantitative Data
Numerical data, ideal and necessary for statistics
Population
Everyone the research could apply to
Sample
The people specifically chosen for your study
Correlation
Identifies the relationship between two variables; useful when experiments are unethical, but correlation does not equal causation
Directionality Problem
Problem where it's unclear which direction the correlation goes (e.g., depression and low self-esteem)
3rd Variable Problem
Problem where a different variable is responsible for the relationship (e.g., ice cream sales and murder rates)
Positive Correlation
Variables increase & decrease together
Negative Correlation
As one variable increases, the other decreases
Experiments
Purposefully manipulate variables to determine cause/effect. Only type that establishes cause and effect, but can be unethical or too artificial
Independent Variable
Purposefully altered by the researcher to look for an effect
Experimental Group
Received the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple groups
Control Group
Placebo, baseline (part of the IV); can only have 1
Dependent Variable
Measured variable, dependent on the independent variable
Placebo Effect
Any observed effect on behavior that is 'caused' by the placebo
Double-Blind Experiment
Experiment where neither the participant nor the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to
Single-Blind Experiment
Only the participant is blind, used if experimenter can't be blind (gender, age, etc.)
Confound
Error/flaw in a study that is accidentally introduced
Random Assignment
Assigns participants to either the control or experimental group at random
Naturalistic Observation
Observe people in their natural settings. Has real-world validity but no cause and effect
Case Study
Studies one person (usually) in great detail. Collects lots of info but no cause/effect
Meta-Analysis
Combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes
Descriptive Stats
Show shape of the data
Mean
Average, use in normal distribution
Median
Middle number, use in skewed distribution
Mode
Occurs most often
Bimodal
Has two modes, usually indicates good/bad scores
Range
Distance between smallest and biggest number
Standard Deviation
Average amount the scores are spread from the mean
Inferential Statistics
Establishes significance (meaningfulness)
Statistical Significance
Results not due to chance, experimental manipulation caused the difference in means (p < .05)
Effect Size
Data has practical significance; bigger is better
Confidentiality
Names kept secret
Informed Consent
Must agree to be part of the study
Informed Assent
Minors AND their parents must agree
Debriefing
Must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception)
Social Desirability Bias
People lie to look good
Wording Effects
How you frame the question can impact your answers
Random Sample (Selection)
Method for choosing participants for your study; everyone has a chance to take part, increases generalizability
Representative Sample
Sample mimics the general population (ethnic, gender, age)
Convenience Sample
Select participants on availability, less representative and less generalizable
Sampling Bias
Sample isn't representative, due to convenience sampling
Refractory Period
Neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP
Neurotransmitters (NT)
Chemicals released in the synaptic gap, received by neurons, classified as excitatory or inhibitory
GABA
Major inhibitory neurotransmitter
Glutamate
Major excitatory neurotransmitter
Dopamine
Reward (short term) & fine movement
Serotonin
Moods (long-term), emotion, sleep
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Memory and movement
Norepinephrine
Sympathetic NS
Endorphins
Decrease pain
Substance P
Pain regulation (abnormality increases pain and inflammation)
Oxytocin
Love, bonding, childbirth, lactation
Adrenaline
Fight/flight
Leptin
Makes you full (stops hunger)
Ghrelin
Makes you hungry (turns you into a gremlin)
Melatonin
Sleep
Agonist
Drug that mimics a neurotransmitter
Antagonist
Drug that blocks a neurotransmitter
Reuptake
Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron
Depressants
Decrease NS activity
Stimulants
Increase NS activity
Hallucinogens
Hallucinations and altered perceptions
Opioids
Relieve pain (endorphin agonists)
Tolerance
Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects
Addiction
Must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms
Withdrawal
Symptoms associated with sudden stoppage
Cerebellum
Movement, balance, coordination, procedural memory
Brainstem / Medulla
Vital organs (HR, BP, breathing)
Reticular Activating System
Alertness, arousal, sleep, eye movement
Cerebral Cortex
Outer portion of the brain – higher order thought processes
Amygdala
Emotions, fear
Hippocampus
Episodic and semantic memory
Hypothalamus
Reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors
Thalamus
Relay center for all but smell
Pituitary Gland
Talks w/ endocrine sys and hypothalamus – release hormones
Occipital Lobe
Vision
Frontal Lobe
Decision making, planning, judgment
Cultural Norms
Behaviors of a particular group that can influence research results
Experimenter Bias/Participant Bias
Experimenter/participant expectations influences the outcome
Cognitive Bias
Bias in thinking/judgment
Confirmation Bias
Find info that supports our preexisting beliefs
Hindsight Bias
"I knew it all along"
Overconfidence
Overestimate our knowledge / abilities
Hawthorne Effect
People change behavior when watched
Evolutionary Psychology
Study how natural selection influences behavior
Heredity (Nature)
How genes influence your behavior
Environment (Nurture)
How outside situations influence your behavior
Central NS
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral NS
Rest of the NS, relays to Central NS
Somatic NS
Voluntary movement, has sensory and motor neurons
Autonomic NS
Involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc)
Sympathetic NS
Fight/flight (generally activates - exception digestion)
Parasympathetic NS
Rest/digest (generally inhibits - exception digestion)
Neuron
Basic cell of the NS
Dendrites
Receive incoming NTs
Axon
AP travels down this
Myelin Sheath
Speeds up AP down axon, protects axon