24-25 AP Exam Study Guide

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Flashcards of key vocabulary and concepts from the AP Exam Study Guide.

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140 Terms

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Hypothesis

Tentative explanation that must be falsifiable

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Operational Definition

Clear, precise, quantifiable definition of your variables, allowing replication and reliable data collection

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Qualitative Data

Descriptive data (e.g., eye color)

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Quantitative Data

Numerical data, ideal and necessary for statistics

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Population

Everyone the research could apply to

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Sample

The people specifically chosen for your study

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Correlation

Identifies the relationship between two variables; useful when experiments are unethical, but correlation does not equal causation

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Directionality Problem

Problem where it's unclear which direction the correlation goes (e.g., depression and low self-esteem)

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3rd Variable Problem

Problem where a different variable is responsible for the relationship (e.g., ice cream sales and murder rates)

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Positive Correlation

Variables increase & decrease together

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Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases

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Experiments

Purposefully manipulate variables to determine cause/effect. Only type that establishes cause and effect, but can be unethical or too artificial

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Independent Variable

Purposefully altered by the researcher to look for an effect

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Experimental Group

Received the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple groups

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Control Group

Placebo, baseline (part of the IV); can only have 1

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Dependent Variable

Measured variable, dependent on the independent variable

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Placebo Effect

Any observed effect on behavior that is 'caused' by the placebo

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Double-Blind Experiment

Experiment where neither the participant nor the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to

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Single-Blind Experiment

Only the participant is blind, used if experimenter can't be blind (gender, age, etc.)

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Confound

Error/flaw in a study that is accidentally introduced

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Random Assignment

Assigns participants to either the control or experimental group at random

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Naturalistic Observation

Observe people in their natural settings. Has real-world validity but no cause and effect

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Case Study

Studies one person (usually) in great detail. Collects lots of info but no cause/effect

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Meta-Analysis

Combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes

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Descriptive Stats

Show shape of the data

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Mean

Average, use in normal distribution

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Median

Middle number, use in skewed distribution

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Mode

Occurs most often

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Bimodal

Has two modes, usually indicates good/bad scores

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Range

Distance between smallest and biggest number

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Standard Deviation

Average amount the scores are spread from the mean

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Inferential Statistics

Establishes significance (meaningfulness)

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Statistical Significance

Results not due to chance, experimental manipulation caused the difference in means (p < .05)

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Effect Size

Data has practical significance; bigger is better

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Confidentiality

Names kept secret

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Informed Consent

Must agree to be part of the study

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Informed Assent

Minors AND their parents must agree

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Debriefing

Must be told the true purpose of the study (done after for deception)

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Social Desirability Bias

People lie to look good

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Wording Effects

How you frame the question can impact your answers

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Random Sample (Selection)

Method for choosing participants for your study; everyone has a chance to take part, increases generalizability

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Representative Sample

Sample mimics the general population (ethnic, gender, age)

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Convenience Sample

Select participants on availability, less representative and less generalizable

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Sampling Bias

Sample isn't representative, due to convenience sampling

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Refractory Period

Neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP

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Neurotransmitters (NT)

Chemicals released in the synaptic gap, received by neurons, classified as excitatory or inhibitory

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GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter

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Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter

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Dopamine

Reward (short term) & fine movement

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Serotonin

Moods (long-term), emotion, sleep

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Acetylcholine (ACh)

Memory and movement

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Norepinephrine

Sympathetic NS

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Endorphins

Decrease pain

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Substance P

Pain regulation (abnormality increases pain and inflammation)

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Oxytocin

Love, bonding, childbirth, lactation

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Adrenaline

Fight/flight

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Leptin

Makes you full (stops hunger)

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Ghrelin

Makes you hungry (turns you into a gremlin)

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Melatonin

Sleep

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Agonist

Drug that mimics a neurotransmitter

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Antagonist

Drug that blocks a neurotransmitter

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Reuptake

Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron

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Depressants

Decrease NS activity

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Stimulants

Increase NS activity

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Hallucinogens

Hallucinations and altered perceptions

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Opioids

Relieve pain (endorphin agonists)

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Tolerance

Needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects

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Addiction

Must have it to avoid withdrawal symptoms

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Withdrawal

Symptoms associated with sudden stoppage

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Cerebellum

Movement, balance, coordination, procedural memory

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Brainstem / Medulla

Vital organs (HR, BP, breathing)

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Reticular Activating System

Alertness, arousal, sleep, eye movement

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Cerebral Cortex

Outer portion of the brain – higher order thought processes

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Amygdala

Emotions, fear

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Hippocampus

Episodic and semantic memory

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Hypothalamus

Reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors

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Thalamus

Relay center for all but smell

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Pituitary Gland

Talks w/ endocrine sys and hypothalamus – release hormones

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Occipital Lobe

Vision

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Frontal Lobe

Decision making, planning, judgment

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Cultural Norms

Behaviors of a particular group that can influence research results

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Experimenter Bias/Participant Bias

Experimenter/participant expectations influences the outcome

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Cognitive Bias

Bias in thinking/judgment

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Confirmation Bias

Find info that supports our preexisting beliefs

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Hindsight Bias

"I knew it all along"

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Overconfidence

Overestimate our knowledge / abilities

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Hawthorne Effect

People change behavior when watched

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Evolutionary Psychology

Study how natural selection influences behavior

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Heredity (Nature)

How genes influence your behavior

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Environment (Nurture)

How outside situations influence your behavior

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Central NS

Brain and spinal cord

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Peripheral NS

Rest of the NS, relays to Central NS

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Somatic NS

Voluntary movement, has sensory and motor neurons

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Autonomic NS

Involuntary organs (heart, lungs, etc)

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Sympathetic NS

Fight/flight (generally activates - exception digestion)

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Parasympathetic NS

Rest/digest (generally inhibits - exception digestion)

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Neuron

Basic cell of the NS

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Dendrites

Receive incoming NTs

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Axon

AP travels down this

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Myelin Sheath

Speeds up AP down axon, protects axon