Midterm Review Notes Comp Politics

Argument

Argument

A set of logically connected statements, usually in the form of premises and a conclusion.

Premise

A true statement that helps lead to a conclusion.

Conclusion

A claim that derives logically from the premises.

Valid argument

An argument where accepting the premises compels us to accept its conclusion.

Invalid argument

An argument where we accept the premises but reject the conclusion.

Comparative politics

The study or method of comparing different political systems or units of analysis.

State

A compulsory political organization that controls a territorial area and upholds the claim to the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force.

• Weber (1978) also contends that the state has to have:

• rationalized-legal administration

• extractive capacity

• legitimate authority

Rationalized-legal administration

A characteristic of the state that involves a system of rules and regulations.

Extractive capacity

A characteristic of the state that involves the ability to extract resources or taxes from the population.

Legitimate authority

A characteristic of the state that involves the recognition and acceptance of its authority by the population.

Functionalist Theories

Theories that argue states emerge to solve collective action problems and provide coordination, protection, and public goods.

Institutionalist Theories

Theories that argue states emerge to protect against expropriation and define property rights crucial for economic growth.

Marxism

- economic agents invent and transform their surrounding world

- this led to the formation of institutions

- institutions are manipulated by classes and classifications (Levi, 1981)

Extractive Economic Institutions

- insecure property rights

- lack of law and order

- entry barriers

Extractive Political Institutions

- concentrating power in the hands of the few

- no checks and balances

Inclusive Economic Institutions

- secure property rights

- law and order

- no entry barriers

Inclusive Political Institutions

- broad political participation

- pluralism

- checks and balances

Limited Democratic Governance

Limited democracy in some African countries with different models of rule for 'citizens' and 'subjects' based on urban and rural areas.

Missionary Roots and Democracy, Woodbery, 2012

- conversionary Protestants influenced the spread of democracy

- they were present in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania

- these introduced religious liberty, mass education, printing, newspapers, civil associations, and colonial reforms

What is democracy and its' characteristics?

- Democracy is a form of government in which the peoplehave the authority to deliberate and decide legislation ("direct democracy") or to choose governing officials to do so ("representative democracy").

Characteristics of democracy often include:

- freedom of assembly

- freedom of speech

- protection of private property

- free and fair elections

- inclusiveness and equality

Contestation

The ability of citizens to organize themselves to push for policies and outcomes they desire in a democratic process.

-whether citizens can organize themselves to push for policies and outcomes which they desire

Inclusion

Who gets to participate in the democratic process.

Polyarchy

A regime with high contestation and inclusion.

Autocracies

- systems of government

- absolute power over a state is concentrated in the hands of one person, group, or party

- there are neither external legal restraints nor mechanisms of popular control

Monarchical regime

An autocracy where the executive comes and maintains power based on kin networks.

Military dictatorship

An autocracy where the executive relies on armed forces to stay in power.

Civilian dictatorship

Autocracies that are not monarchical or military dictatorships.

One-party dictatorship

A type of civilian dictatorship where a single party dominates access to political office and control over policy.

Personalist dictatorship

A type of civilian dictatorship where a person dominates access to political office and control over policy.

Political parties

Groups of people, including those who hold office and those who help get and keep them there.

Single-party systems

Political systems where only one party is legally allowed to hold power.

One-party dominant systems

Political systems where multiple parties may legally operate, but only one party has a realistic chance of gaining power.

Two-party dominant systems

Political systems where two major political parties have a realistic chance of holding power.

Multiparty systems

Political systems where more than two parties can hold power.

Electoral institutions

Institutions that determine how votes are translated into seats and influence the existence of new parties.

Proportional electoral systems

Electoral systems that transfer votes into seats proportionally.

Disproportional electoral systems

Electoral systems that transfer votes into seats disproportionally and favor larger parties.

Functionalist Theories -Rousseau

- states emerge to solve collective action problems

- individuals need the state to protect themselves against war and poverty

- state is an infrastructure: coordinating, punishing defectors, and supplying some public goods

Institutionalist Theories -Hobbes

- states emerge to protect against expropriation

- states define property rights that are crucial to economic growth or production (Levi, 1991)

- originally the state = bandits who ask for protection money

- the bandits evolve into the state

How did Africa develop in the postcolonial world?

- Limited Democratic Governance in some African countries has its roots in the colonial past

- urban areas were ruled directly by the colonizers -citizens

- rural areas were not based on traditional authority structures - subjects

- The result after colonialism - bifurcated African states, with different models of rule for 'citizens' and for subjects: - decentralized despotism in rural areas - more democratic rule in urban areas

- empirical cases: Uganda and South Africa

What are the Measures for Democracy?

- Polity IV

- Freedom House

- The Democracy Index

What is the Modernization Theory about countries that develop economically?

As countries develop economically:

- they are more likely to become democratic

- they are more likely to stay democratic

What is a Representative Government?

- Representative government is more likely to emerge and survive when the rulers of a country depend on a segment of society consisting of a relatively large number of people holding liquid or mobile assets.

- This is exactly the point put forward by Barrington Moore: No bourgeoisie, no democracy.

- Hobbes saw the creation of a state as the solution to the security dilemma between individuals in the state of nature.

- The assumption is that individuals only have to worry about each other, but not about the state predating them

When can States Limit their Predatory Behavior?

When the state is dependent on citizens with credible exit threats

Resource Curse and Democratization

Natural resources can negatively influence democratization. This is the political resource curse:

- countries which depend on oil, diamonds, and minerals will find it difficult to democratize

- countries that depend on oil, diamonds, and minerals are more likely to feature corruption, poor governance, and civil war.

Demand-side explanations for natural resources fueling authoritarianism

- Resource revenues reduce the citizens' demand for democratic reform and government responsiveness to that demand.

- Taxes are low, and governments are autonomous from citizen demands.

Supply-side explanations for natural resources fueling authoritarianism

- Resource revenues enable dictators to resist pressure to democratize and help them consolidate their power.

- Resource revenues can be distributed as patronage to preempt or coopt opposition groups or used to repress them

What are the distinct purposes a political party can serve?

- Represent the people (link the ruler to the ruled) - Recruit and socialize the political elite

- Mobilize the masses

Why do Electoral Institutions Matter?

- Social cleavages create the demand for political parties.

- Electoral institutions determine whether this latent demand for representation leads to the existence of new parties.

- Non-proportional or non-permissive electoral systems act as a brake on the tendency for social cleavages to be translated into new parties.

- Proportional electoral systems transfer votes into seats proportionally

- Disproportional electoral systems transfer votes into seats disproportionally: they will favor larger parties

how can natural resources negatively influence democratization?

An abundance of natural resources can fuel authoritarianism because it is an external source of revenue that goes entirely to the government rather than to citizens, who are then taxed. This accruing state revenue strengthens bureaucracies and reduces/eliminates the need for taxation while also reducing the need for the government to demand acceptance of public taxation. The lower the level of taxation, the less reason for the public to demand representation. Therefore, societies move away from representative democracy and towards an autocracy. --> Diversion of resources (to political supporters and/or extractive industries) away from public welfare can undermine the government's legitimacy and hinder the development of democratic institutions

Example: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a classic example of a rentier state heavily reliant on oil revenues. Its oil wealth has allowed the monarchy to maintain a repressive and non-democratic regime. The government's control over the vast oil wealth has reduced its dependence on taxation, making it less accountable to its citizens.

To what extent is comparative politics a field of study or a method?

comparative politics is a field of study that examines political systems across different contexts, but it also involves a specific methodological approach focused on making systematic comparisons. The combination of studying political phenomena across countries and using the comparative method to gain insights and develop theories makes comparative politics a significant and versatile subfield within political science.

- Comparative politics as a field of study focuses on examining and understanding the political systems of different countries. This includes studying various aspects of government, such as political institutions, electoral systems, and the organization of political parties.

- involves comparing and contrasting political cultures, including values, beliefs, and the role of citizens in different societies. This can help identify commonalities and differences in how people participate in politics and view their governments.

- Comparative politics assesses policy outcomes in different countries, which can include examining the effectiveness of policies, public services, and governance structures.

- Comparative politics employs a specific methodological approach known as the "comparative method." This method involves systematically comparing and contrasting different political entities to identify patterns, relationships, and causal factors. Researchers use case studies, cross-national data, and other tools to make systematic comparisons.

- Comparative politics is a method for developing and testing theories in political science. Researchers use comparative analysis to test hypotheses, explore cause-and-effect relationships, and advance our understanding of political phenomena.

- Through the comparative method, scholars aim to draw generalizable conclusions about political behavior, institutions, and processes. They seek to identify trends that are not limited to a specific country or region.

Comparative political analysis relies excessively on whole countries as units of comparison, but generating satisfactory alternative variables to countries is extremely difficult. Discuss

The reliance on whole countries as units of comparison in comparative political analysis has its advantages and disadvantages. While using countries as units of analysis is common, it's important to recognize the limitations and complexities involved in this approach.

- One of the main challenges in generating alternative variables to countries is the significant heterogeneity within countries. Countries are not homogeneous entities; they encompass diverse populations, regions, cultures, and political dynamics. Variables that may be relevant at a national level may not capture the subnational variations or complexities.

- While comparing countries as whole units is convenient, it is not all-encompassing and, therefore, not entirely accurate. Each country/region has vastly different social, economic, and political nuances that are overlooked when they are compared at a national level.

Example: During the Arab Spring and subsequent political upheavals in the Middle East, the unit of analysis was typically the nation-state. While this approach allowed for the examination of regime changes and transitions in specific countries, it often failed to capture the cross-border influences and transnational dynamics that played a crucial role in the uprisings. The movements transcended national boundaries, making country-level analysis insufficient.

Is it possible to define states in a way that is geographically and temporally universal?

Defining states in a geographically and temporally universal manner can be challenging due to the dynamic nature of state boundaries and the evolving concept of political entities.

There is no exact way to define a state; however, there are certain rules for existence that allow a state to be established in the first place:

- rationalized legal administration (centralized state power)

- Extractive capacity (ability to tax)

- Legitimate authority (citizens must believe that you are capable of ruling)

Example: European colonial powers extended their authority over territories inhabited by diverse indigenous populations, each with its own political and cultural structures. These territories did not neatly fit the traditional definition of states, as they were often governed indirectly or under a fragmented system of colonial administration.

Which theory about the origin of the states do you find most persuasive and why?

Functionalist Theories -Rousseau

-Rousseau's theory places a central emphasis on the concept of the "general will." He argues that a legitimate state arises when individuals come together and agree to form a social contract to create a collective will or common good that is in the best interest of the entire community. This emphasis on the general will resonate with the idea of collective decision-making and democratic principles.

-Rousseau's theory addresses the problem of inequality in society. He argues that inequalities, especially those stemming from the unequal distribution of property and resources, are the source of social conflict.

-Rousseau's theory emphasizes the importance of voluntary and informed consent as the basis for political authority. He argues that individuals should participate in the creation of the social contract, ensuring that the government's authority is derived from the will of the people.

Example: The American Revolution can be seen as a manifestation of the idea of a social contract. The American colonists, feeling oppressed by British colonial rule and taxation without representation, came together to assert their collective will to form a new nation. Rousseau believed governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. The colonists believed that their consent was not being respected by the British government, which justified their rebellion.

What effects did colonial occupation have on the trajectory of democracy in colonized countries?

The impact of colonialism on democracy is complex and cannot be reduced to a single, universal pattern. The effects of colonial occupation on the trajectory of democracy in colonized countries varied widely and depended on several factors: inclusive or extractive colonial power, if colonization brought infrastructure and modernization, if a legacy of social and ethnic division occurs (such as the colonization of Africa). Certain moments in history, called "critical junctures," can lead to institutional changes that have long-lasting effects on a nation's development. These junctures can be political, economic, or social in nature. (Acemoglu and Robinson)

Describe inclusive and extractive institutions. Do you agree with this framework of conceptualizing colonialism?

Extractive institutions tend to concentrate power in the hands of the few with no system of checks and balances, while inclusive institutions have broad participation, pluralism (a system in which two or more states, groups, principles, and sources of authority coexist), checks and balances--these institutions apply to economics and politics and offer different perspectives on how colonialism impacted the development and governance of colonized regions:
- Inclusive institutions would conceptualize colonialism as a period when colonial powers established inclusive institutions in the colonies, leading to long-term positive economic and political development. This would be the case if the colonial administration promoted property rights, infrastructure, education, and inclusive political representation for the colonized population. EXAMPLE: Due to indirect rule and lack of resource exploitation, Botswana's history is unique in the context of African colonialism, as it benefited from a combination of factors that contributed to a relatively inclusive and stable colonial period, setting the stage for its post-independence success.
- Extractive institutions would conceptualize colonialism as a period during which colonial powers imposed extractive institutions on the colonies, leading to long-term negative economic and political consequences. This would be the case if the colonial administration extracted resources and labor from the colonized population, maintained authoritarian control and left the local population impoverished and disenfranchised. EXAMPLE: The Spanish conquest and colonization of Peru is a notable case of extractive colonialism due to the exploitative and devastating nature of Spanish rule in the region (forced labor of native Peruvians and exploitation of precious metals)
(Acemoglu, Daron, and James Robinson)

How do we define democracy, and how do we know it is a good definition?

Democracy is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation ("direct democracy") or to choose governing officials to do so ("representative democracy"). This definition is a concise and generally accurate description of the concept. It highlights two key forms of democracy and correctly emphasizes the fundamental idea that in a democracy, political authority ultimately rests with the people. They have the power to shape laws and policies, whether through direct participation or by choosing representatives. This definition is neither conceptually stretched (stretching a concept beyond its natural boundaries causes it to lose specificity and, therefore, analytical power) nor strained (used in a restrictive manner that fails to note crucial variations or nuances within comparative politics). (Sartori)
Example: Athens in ancient Greece is often cited as one of the earliest examples of direct democracy. The Athenian democracy allowed eligible citizens to participate directly in decision-making, including the formulation of laws and policies.

Does growth cause democracy? Discuss.

According to the Modernization Theory, as countries develop economically they are more likely to become democratic and stay democratic. (Clark and Golder, and Geddes). This theory argues that as people become wealthier and better educated, they demand more political rights and freedoms, which in turn leads to greater democratization. (EXAMPLE: South Korea experienced rapid economic development, which played a significant role in its transition from an authoritarian regime to a more democratic system). While there is some evidence to support this theory, it has also been criticized for oversimplifying the complex process of democratization. For example, some countries that have experienced rapid economic growth and urbanization, such as China, have not become more democratic. In addition, there are many cases of countries that have democratized despite low levels of economic development. While economic development has proven to promote democratization, there are several other factors that may be equally or more important. For example, the role of civil society, political institutions, and historical legacies cannot be ignored (Woodbery, 2006)

Do "elite-driven" factors matter more for democratization?

It is often the interplay between elite-driven initiatives and broader societal pressures that leads to successful democratization. Both are important, and their relative importance can shift during different phases of the democratization process. While elite-driven factors can be influential in democratization, it is not accurate to say that they matter more than grassroots movements and civil society organizations that exert pressure for democratization independently of the political elite; economic factors; and international pressure. Successful democratization usually involves a combination of factors, including elite-driven initiatives, social movements, economic conditions, and external pressures.
According to Golder, Golder, and Clark there are types of Democratic Transitions: pacted transitions- negotiated agreements between authoritarian elites and opposition forces; revolutionary transitions- characterized by popular uprisings and regime overthrows; military interventions- when the military plays a significant role in the transition.

What are the different ways to classify authoritarian regimes? Discuss

Monarchical regime- autocracy in which the executive comes and maintains power based on kin networks (Example: the rule of Louis XIV, "the sun king" of France during the 17th century)

Military dictatorship- an executive who relies on armed forces to stay in power. Military rulers often portray "themselves as 'guardians of the national interest,' saving the nation from the disaster wrought by corrupt and myopic civilian politicians"
It is not clear that military rulers actually have such altruistic motivations. Some scholars have argued, for instance, that military coups are more often than not motivated by class conflict or corporate interests (Examples: Chile under Augusto Pinochet militant takeover of newly elected socialist government)

Civilian dictatorship- all the other types of regimes are civilian dictatorships. Unlike monarchies and military dictatorships, which can rely on family and kin networks or the strength of the armed forces to stay in power, civilian dictators do not have an immediate institutional base of support. Many civilian dictators create new institutions, such as regime parties or personality cults (north Korea turning dictators into god-like entities), to penetrate and control society.
--Personalist-One person dominates access to political office and control over policy (Italy under Benito Mussolini)
--Single-party regimes-Single party dominates access to political office and control over policy → other parties may exist and attempt to compete in election TYPICALLY LASTS LONGER THAN PERSONALIST(the rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party in Mexico for much of the 20th century)

Many authoritarian regimes have institutions that look democratic on paper but differ in practice. What explains that?

Authoritarian regimes often seek to maintain a facade of democracy to gain international legitimacy and support. By having democratic-sounding institutions in place, they can argue that they are adhering to democratic principles, even if these institutions lack real power or are manipulated. This can include holding elections, establishing political parties, and creating legislative bodies that, in practice, have limited or no authority to challenge the ruling regime. Authoritarian regimes may hold elections but manipulate them through voter suppression, gerrymandering, restrictions on opposition candidates, or control over the media. These practices ensure that the election outcomes favor the ruling party or leader. (North Korea)
Authoritarian regimes often co-opt and incentivize segments of the elite class to support the regime. These elites may be given positions in government or business opportunities, effectively ensuring their loyalty to the regime. (Jennifer Gandhi)
Authoritarian regimes use propaganda and censorship to shape public opinion, making it difficult for citizens to access alternative viewpoints. Authoritarian regimes use repression and fear tactics to suppress dissent and opposition. This can include the imprisonment of political opponents, activists, and journalists. (Guatemala has a history of using repression and fear as tools to suppress dissent, control the population, and maintain the authority of the ruling regime)

How are parties formed, how do they link to particular groups in society, and how do they reflect social divisions in a given country?

Social cleavages create the demand for political parties. They are divisions or conflicts within a society based on factors such as social, economic, cultural, or political differences. Social cleavages often reflect diverse interests, beliefs, and needs within a society. The presence of these divisions necessitates the establishment of political parties to represent the various groups and advocate for their specific concerns. Different parties represent the needs/desires of groups, reflecting the social divisions present in the country. For example, a wealthy voter coalition will support a party that is fiscally conservative, whereas a lower-class voter coalition will support a party that promotes social welfare and income-based taxes. Each party promotes its own social and economic ideologies that appeal to various sectors of the country based on people's own economic, ethnic, and social experiences. Political parties, by representing diverse social cleavages, contribute to the legitimacy of the political system. They demonstrate that the system is open to accommodating a range of voices and perspectives. (Anthony Downs)
Example: Democratic vs Republican party in U.S.

How do parties organize themselves to compete for power?

Despite having the same objective of attracting the greatest number of votes, political parties obtain polarizing ideological beliefs, as each party's ideology attracts some groups while innately antagonizing others. These specific ideologies must be consistent with the party's policies; while some voters rely solely on party ideology to differentiate candidates, others focus on the specific issues of the party. (Anthony Downs)
Political parties engage in positional competition when taking different stances along a pre-determined, partisan scale. This differs from issue competition, which entails political parties emphasizing specific issues that they want to be central to the electoral debate. Rather than simply adopting a fixed conservative-liberal ideological stance, parties actively promote and highlight particular issues in an effort to shape the political agenda and gain an advantage in electoral competition (example: Abortion rights in the 2024 US Election). Although issue and positional competition differ, they often occur simultaneously. Issue competition may involve positional competition, as parties take positions on issues, while specific issues may be more attractive simply because they contrast with other parties. (Green-Pedersen)