Indians Organized for Independence (Topic 2 for Unit 9)

Mohandas Gandhi

• studied law in Britain
• first job in South Africa where he fought racial discrimination and social injustice endured by non-whites because of Apartheid
• raised Hindu but developed political and religious philosophies by combining themes from Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity
• treated people of the untouchables caste like social equals, surprising Hindus
• referred to as "The Mahatma" by followers
• worked to heal the divide among Hindus and Muslims to strengthen the Indian Nationalist Movement
• arrested in 1922, faced a six year sentence in prison, but only served two
• urged followers to fight Rowlett Act by fasting and prayer
• killed January 30th, 1948 by a Hindu extremist for being "too nice" to Muslims
• His Four General Principles: Live life simply without seeking material rewards, be tolerant of others religious beliefs, spend life in service of others (help people), always battle injustice without violence
• encouraged civil disobedience: boycott British goods, refuse to pay British taxes, not obeying immoral British laws, not attending British courts when asked, avoiding public transportation, LARGE marches, speeches, make and wear their own clothes from homespun cloth (khadi), fasting/hunger strikes, sit-ins, signs → all to PEACEFULLY secure change

Rowlett Act

• a law that granted Britain the right to jail protestors without trial for up to TWO years!
• passed to squash the growing nationalist movement in India after Britain refused to give Indians a higher degree of independence after they fought in WWI for Britain thinking they'd get it
• Britain was accused of being hypocritical after passing this because habeas corpus (laws relating to lawful imprisonment) was apart of British law (the English Bill of Rights) but not India after this act…

Amritsar Massacre

• aka the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
• Britain jailed two Indian protest leaders from Amritsar without providing them a fair trial → their supporters petitioned for the leaders' release and British troops fired on them
• In response to the shooting of the petitioners, a furious Indian mob burned British banks and killed several British citizens
• three days later, around 10,000 Indians gathered in Amritsar for a Hindu festival
• a small group of nationalist was also in the crowd for the festival, there to protest the ban on public gatherings
• General Dyer urged his troops to use this as an opportunity to "teach the Indians a lesson" (to not protest or break British law)
• Dyer blocked all exits to the square and ordered his troops (~90 INDIAN soldiers) to open fire for 10 minutes
• nearly 400 people were killed
• around 1,200 people were wounded
• rather than silencing all nationalist demands, this turned peaceful, uninvolved Indians into active nationalists
• Britain tried to soothe nationalists after this by passing the Government of India Act which created an Indian Legislature to share power with the viceroy, BUT still allowed Britain to control foreign policy and security matters
• Indian nationalists REJECTED the proposal → Britain disappointed

Jawaharlal Nehru

• Leader of the Indian National Congress
• became 1st Prime Minister of Independent India
• served as Prime Minister for 16 years
• agreed with Muhammad Ali Jinnah that Britain's "new" Government of India Act was inefficient solution, so it never became a law

the Indian National Congress (INC)

• an early reform organization
• one of the original goals: earning Indian equal opportunities to earn jobs in civil service
• later goal: control of India's government and ending all cooperation with Britain
• the minority university graduates formed the core of this
• received minimal support from native population because most were uneducated and uninterested, rather they were focused on daily survival → 8,000 out of 325 million were university grads because most couldn't afford college
• often as out of touch with ordinary villagers as British
• Britain giving into their demands = civil war

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

• leader of Muslim League
• First Governor-General of Independent Pakistan, but died ONE year later
• first to start using Islamic culture as the backbone of law
• agreed with Jawaharlal Nehru that Britain "new" Government of India Act was an inefficient solution, so it never became a law

the Muslim League

• at first: wanted to guarantee that India's Muslim population had a role in the future Indian politics and economics
• by 1930: wanted an independent nation for all Muslims
• despite leader's urging, their demands grew more and more radical
• Britain giving into their demands = civil war

Pakistan

• means "Land of the Pure"
• the independent nation for Muslims that the Muslim League wanted to carve from Indian population + land

The "Mahatma"

• means "Great Soul"
• what Gandhi's followers called him to express their feelings of respect and admiration

passive resistance / civil disobedience

• draws on the power of non-violent moral force to peacefully secure change
• examples: boycotting, refusing to pay taxes, refusing to attend court, refusing to obey laws, avoiding public transport, marches, speeches, fasting, sit-ins
• what Gandhi called his followers to rely on while nationalist tension flared
• hurt Britain's economic strength in India by bringing their trains and factories close to shutting down
• to protect their industry from this, Britain arrested and jailed ALL protestors, including Gandhi (he faced a 6 year sentence!)

boycott

• to refuse to buy
• Gandhi told his followers to do this to British goods, specifically cloth → he encouraged them to instead spin their own cloth and wear it as Khadi (Gandhi himself spent 2 hours a day spinning his own yarn)

How did World War I affect nationalism in India?

• Indians volunteered to fight in WWI for Britain (and the Allies) and supported their military efforts
• In return, they hoped Britain would grant India self-government
• But when the war ended in 1918, India got nothing from the Treaty of Versailles AND Britain refused to grant Indians a higher degree of independence → as a result, Indians protested
• To rub even more salt in their wounds, Britain passed the Rowlett Act to squash the growing nationalist movement
• The Rowlett Act granted Britain the right to jail protestors without trial for up to 2 years!
• Indians were even more angered by Britain's hypocracy → habeas corpus (laws regarding lawful imprisonment) were in the English Bill of Rights, but they had just TAKEN IT AWAY from India!
• Amritsar Massacre was General Dyer's attempt to crush the nationalist movement → it failed

What was one of the Indian National Congress' original goals?

For Indians to have equal opportunity to earn jobs in civil service.

What was one of the later goals of the Indian National Congress?

Gaining control of India's government and ending all cooperation with Great Britain.

Despite its increasingly radical nationalist agenda, the INC received minimal support from India's native population. Why is that?

The native population was uneducated and uninterested in politics. Only 8,000 out of 325 million (0.000025%) people were university graduates because most didn't have the money for college. They were instead more focused on daily survival, like getting enough food to eat. Often the INC members were as out of touch as the British.

As a student what did Gandhi study and where?

He studied law in Britain.

Where did Gandhi's first job bring him?

To South Africa, where he fought the racial discrimination and social injustice non-whites endured because of the Apartheid.

What was Gandhi raised as? And why is it significant?

Gandhi was raised Hindu, but he developed his political and religious philosophy by combining various religious themes from Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity.

What were Gandhi's Four General Principles that promoted social justice?

1. Live life simply, not seeking material rewards. (don't be greedy)
2. Be tolerant of others religious beliefs. (tolerate all religions)
3. Spend your life in service of others. (help people)
4. Battle injustice, but NEVER by resorting to violence. (battle injustice without violence)

What did Gandhi do after returning to India, surprising many Hindus?

He treated members of the untouchables caste like social equals.

Why did Gandhi's followers refer to him as "The Mahatma"?

It meant "Great Soul" and expressed their feelings of respect and admiration.

When World War I broke out in 1914, many Indians voluntarily supported Great Britain's military efforts. They hoped Britain would show their gratitude to India by doing what?

By granting India self government after the war's conclusion.

Why did anti-British acts of terrorism escalate after 1918? (World War I ended)

Britain refused to grant Indians a higher degree of independence.

What did Great Britain pass seeking to squash the growing national movement?

The Rowlett Act

What did the Rowlett Act allow Britain to do?

It granted Britain the right to jail protestors without trial for up to TWO years.

Why was the Rowlett Act hypocritical of Britain?

British law (the English Bill of Rights) had habeas corpus (laws relating to lawful imprisonment) but they just took away some of India's.

Rather than supporting popular calls for more violence, what did Gandhi urge his followers to do after the Rowlett Act was passed?

He urged his followers to fight the unfair law through peaceful fasting and prayer.

Britain jailed two Indian protest leaders from Amritsar without providing them a fair trial. What did their supporters do?

Their supporters petitioned for the leaders' release.

What did Britain do when the two Indian protest leaders' supporters petitioned for their release?

British troops fired on them.

What did a mob of furious Indians do in response to the British troops firing the supporters of the two protest leaders from Amritsar?

They burned British banks and killed several British citizens.

Three days later, around 10,000 Indians gathered in Amritsar for what?

a Hindu festival

The crowd of around 10,000 Indians also included what?

a small group of nationalists who wanted to protest against the ban on public gatherings.

What did General Dyer urge his troops to use the protest as an opportunity for?

An opportunity to "teach the Indians a lesson" (to not protest or break British law)

What did General Dyer order his troops to do at the Amritsar Massacre?

He told them to block all exits to the square and open fire on the crowd of people for 10 minutes.

Rather than silencing all nationalist demands, the Amritsar Massacre did what?

It backfired on Britain, turning peaceful and uninvolved Indians into active nationalists.

How did Britain try to soothe the growing tension after the Amritsar Massacre?

They offered the nationalists the Government of India Act.

What did the Government of India Act offer?

It included the creation of an Indian legislature to share power with the viceroy, while letting Britain keep control over foreign policy and security matters.

Did Indian nationalists accept or reject the Government of India Act?

They rejected it, disappointing Britain.

While nationalist tension flared, what did Gandhi call his followers to rely on acts of?

civil disobedience

What were some civil disobedience tactics used by Gandhi and his followers?

• boycotting British goods
• refusing to pay British taxes
• refusing to attend court when asked
• refusing to obey immoral British laws
• avoiding public transportation
• LARGE marches
• speeches
• make their own cloth, wearing it as khadi
• fasting/hunger strikes
• sit-ins
• signs

Are Hindus monotheist or polytheist?

Polytheist

Are Muslims monotheist or polytheist?

Monotheist

What were Hindus opinion of social equality?

Accepted the division of society into castes that were NOT considered equal

What were Muslims opinion of social equality?

All followers of Islam were equal before God

What are Hindus views on food and drink?

• cows are sacred (not to be eaten, Muslims ate beef)
• drank alcohol (forbidden to Muslims)

What are Muslims views on food and drink?

• pigs are sacred
• forbidden to drink alcohol (Hindus drank alcohol)

What were some of the complaints about Muslim ceremonial rituals Hindus had?

Muslims pray five times a day, Hindus complained the calls for prayer were disturbing to hear five times a day (at dawn too).

What were some of the complaints about Hindu ceremonial rituals Muslims had?

Hindu music and processions disturbed their prayers (especially in towns where Hindu temples and Muslim mosques were close together).

How did Britain exploit the cultural differences between Hindus and Muslims?

They encouraged them so they could divide and rule! (If they were too busy fighting with one another, they wouldn't fight them!)

Rather than unite against foreign oppression, what did the Indian population do instead?

They split along religious, cultural, and economic lines.

Who worked diligently to heal the divide between Hindus and Muslims in his efforts to strengthen the Indian nationalist movement's efforts?

Gandhi

Despite their leader's urging, what group grew increasingly radical?

the Muslim League

Initially, the Muslim League had pushed to guarantee that India's Muslim population had a role in the future of Indian politics and economics. But by 1930 what did it demand?

an independent nation for all Muslims

What did Britain offer to nationalists in 1935?

Another deal in the "new" Government of India Act.

What did the "new" Government of India Act include?

A democratic election to create a national legislature as well as establishing a local assembly to govern in each Indian province.

Who both agreed that Britain's "new" Government of India Act was an insufficient solution, and therefore it never became a law?

Jawaharlal Nehru (leader of the Indian National Congress) and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (leader of the Muslim League)

What troubling dilemma did Britain face by the 1930s?

• It could no longer stall the movement pushing for a break from Britain, but it couldn't please both factions of the nationalist movement either
• the INC demanded 100% independence for all Indians (an idea summed up by the phrase 100% freedom)
• the Muslim League demanded the chance to carve an independent Muslim nation out of the Indian population. It hoped to call the new country Pakistan.
• It appeared to Britain that giving in to either groups demand would result in the outbreak of a civil war across India.

What is a specific example of Gandhi's civil disobedience campaign?

the Salt March, protesting an unfair tax Britain put on salt. Marchers planned to walk to the salt mines and collect salt, but they faced a violent opposition.

What advice did Madame Naidu offer march participants before they set off on their journey to the salt mines?

She told them they must not use any violence, no matter the circumstances. They must not resist, nor raise a hand to block the blows.

What were lathis?

five-foot clubs tipped with steel

How did march participants respond when attacked by the police?

They did not attempt to defend themselves against the police's blows. The ones on the ground were carried off to a makeshift hospital by stretchers (blankets). The other march participants stepped over their comrades fallen bodies into the swinging clubs.

Why didn't the marchers stop advancing once the police began the initial raid on the participants?

They were not afraid. They knew they had to show the world the brutal violence they suffered because they just tried to get salt.

According to V.J. Patel, why was it impossible for Britain to keep alive the hope of including India among its future territorial holdings?

Because the government claimed they were civilized but when people practiced non-violent protests and were unresistant, that same government used extreme, savage, and brutal means against them.

What finally caused the marchers to end their demonstration on May 21, 1930?

The sheer heat, it reached 116 degrees in the SHADE by 11 am.

Why is the fact that the heat stopped the marcher historically significant?

It was nature that stopped the marchers, not people. If it weren't for the heat, the marchers would have kept on marching.

Why do you think civil disobedience works based on the Salt March? (OPINION)

It makes enemies seem cruel in an outsider's eye. They look like horrifying, uncivilized monsters. Without support from others the enemy feels alone, cornered, no way to escape. The people succeeded in putting stress on their enemy, placed them in a difficult situation where they look like the villain.

In your opinion, why was Gandhi able to win popular support for Indian independence when earlier nationalist leaders had not been able to do so?

Gandhi's ideas included everyone. Women, men, children, the sickly, and the healthy could all participate. Whether it be in boycotting British goods, making their own cloth, or actually marching in protest.

Why is 1947 a very important turning point in South Asian history?

The Raj is over! It was the end of British rule and India split into India and Pakistan.

What factors influenced the end of the Raj and separation of India?

• the rise of Indian Nationalism
• WWII bankrupting Britain (they couldn't afford their empire or had enough troops to manage their global empire where nationalism soared)
• the INC grew stronger

What decision did Britain make about the tension between South Asian Hindus and Muslims?

• they divided the Indian Subcontinent into India and Pakistan
• they also left without a clear exit strategy, one year earlier than planned

What tragic events occurred in South Asia shortly after the official establishment of independent Pakistan and independent India?

• Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-1948: several hundred thousand to 2 million died
• around 15 million people mass migrated (very quickly) → Hindus and Sikhs to India, Muslims to Pakistan
• because of the mass migration, violence occurred: militias trying to wipe out the other religion, murder, gr*pe, trains very crowded

What was Jawaharlal Nehru's role after Britain dismantled the Raj?

• First Prime Minister of independent India
• served for 16 years

What was Muhammad Ali Jinnah;s role after Britain dismantled the Raj?

• First Governor-General of independent Pakistan (died one year later)
• started using Islamic culture as the backbone of law

What happened to Gandhi in 1948?

He was assassinated in New Delhi on January 30, 1948 by a Hindu extremist because he was "too kind" to South Asian Muslims.

What is the connection between this historical information and more recent global issues?

• conflict over Kashmir: India says its theirs, Pakistan says its theirs, multiple wars over it have occurred
• India and Pakistan both have nukes so a close eye has to be kept on them