Psychology a level - PART 1 relationships

ao1 and ao3

3 most important aspects of sexual selection

anisogamy

inter-sexual selection

intra-sexual selection

what is sexual selection

an evolutionary explanation of partner preference. attributes that increase chance of reproductive success are inherited by offspring and may become exaggerated over generations

what is anisogamy

the basis of human reproductive behaviour, refers to the difference between male and female gametes

a consequence of this is that there is no shortage of fertile males but fertile females is much more rare

gives rise to inter and intra sexual selection

what is inter-sexual selection

strategies individuals use to select the other sex, and is the preferred strategy by females: quality over quantity

what does Trivers (1972) point out that women invest more in during and after the birth of offspring

time, resources, commitment

what is Fisher’s sexy son hypothesis

a female who mates with a male with “sexy” traits will pass these onto her son, making his reproductive success more likely

what is intra-sexual selection

strategies between people of the same sex to be the one that is selected, preferred strategy of males: quantity over quality

2 examples of behavioural consequences of intrasexual selection

aggression

intelligence

research support for intersexual selection

Clark and Hatfield (1989): sent female and male students to a university campus and had them approach students and say “would you go to bed with me tonight?”

0% females said yes, but 75% of males said yes

research support for intrasexual selection

Buss (1989): survey of 10,000 adults in 33 countries asking questions about attributes evolutionary theory predicts to be important in sexual selection

females placed greater value on resources while males valued physical attractiveness and youth

2 limitations of sexual selection

ignores cultural differences

cant explain all relationship behaviour like homosexuality

what is self-disclosure

revealing personal information. romantic partners reveal more about themselves as the relationship progresses, and this can strengthen a bond when used appropriately

what is social penetration theory

Altman and Taylor’s theory of how a relationship develops: the gradual, reciprocal process of partners revealing increasingly intimate information about themselves as the relationship develops

what do Altman and Taylor suggest about the breadth and depth of self disclosure

partners become more committed as both of these increase

onion analogy used to describe this process

what term do Altman and Taylor use to describe how dissatisfied partners start to self-disclose less as they disengage

depenetration

what do Reis and Shaver point out regarding reciprocity in self disclosure

successful relationships involve balanced and reciprocal self disclosure

research support self-disclosure theory

Sprecher and Hendrick (2004): found strong positive correlations between several measures of satisfaction and self-disclosure in heterosexual relationships

research support that self-disclosure should be reciprocal

Sprecher et al (2013) found relationships are more satisfying when partners take turn to self-disclose

research support for importance of self-disclosure in homosexual couples

Haas and Stafford (1998): 57% of homosexual men and women said open and honest self-disclosure was the main way they deepened and maintained their relationship

strength of self-disclosure theory

real world application

research support for cultural differences in self-disclosure

Nu Tang et al (2013): metanalysis that concluded people in the USA disclosed more sexual thoughts and feelings that people in China. satisfaction levels were no lower

2 kinds of faces people are thought to be attracted to

symmetrical, neotenous

3 factors affecting attraction

self disclosure

physical attractiveness

filter theory

what is the halo effect

the physical attractiveness stereotype, where research has found that good looking people are consistently rated as stronger, kinder, sociable, and successful

who proposed the matching hypothesis? what is it?

Walster and Walster (1969)

the idea that individuals are attracted to partners who are equally as good looking as themselves instead of those who are most physically appealing

study on the matching hypothesis

Walster (1966) ‘The Computer Dance’. male and female p’s were rated by an observer on their physical attractiveness, and told a computer would match them with a partner, although in reality they were paired randomly

hypothesis was not supported, as p’s preferred the most attractive individuals no matter their own score

study on the halo effect

Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive individuals were rated as more competent and politically knowledgeable than unattractive individuals, even when p’s were told that the attractive people had no political expertise

research support matching hypothesis

Feingold (1988) carried out a meta-analysis of 17 studies

found significant positive correlation in ratings of physical attractiveness between partners

what is filter theory

suggests that a series of different factors progressively reduce the range of potential romantic partners, creating a "field of desirables”

3 filters of filter theory (in order)

social demography

similarity in attitudes

complementarity

study on similarity of attitudes and complementarity

Kerchhoff and Davis (1962) compared attitudes and personalities of students in short-term (less than 18 months) and long-term (more than 18m) relationships in a longitudinal study (of 7 months) using questionnaires

relationship ‘closeness’ was associated with similar attitudes in the short-term couples, but with complementarity in the long-term

study on actual vs perceived similarity in filter theory

Montoya et al (2008) carried out a metanalysis of 313 studies found that actual similarity only affected attraction in short-term lab-based interactions

perceived similarity more important in the long term

4 theories of romantic relationships

social exchange

equity theory

Rusbult’s investment model

Duck’s phase model

what is social exchange theory

the economic theory of relationships that romantic partners act out of self-interest in exchanging rewards and costs

a relationship is maintained when rewards exceed costs and potential alternatives are not more attractive

what is comparison level (social exchange theory)

the amount of reward a person believes they deserve to get, positively correlated with self-esteem and social norms

what is comparison level for alternatives

weighing up the rewards of the current relationship with the rewards of other potentials

4 stages of relationship development according to social exchange theory

sampling

bargaining

commitment

institutionalisation

study on social exchange theory

Kurdek (1995) asked gay, lesbian, and hetero couples to complete questionnaires assessing commitment and SET variables

the most committed individuals perceived their relationship to have low costs and high rewards, and alternatives as unattractive

what is equity theory

an economic theory of relationship development that stresses that partners value whether the costs and rewards of each individual is fair

how will an under benefitted partner feel (according to equity theory)

anger, hostility, resentment

how will an over benefitted partner feel (according to equity theory)

guilty, shameful

does equity theory predict a strong positive correlation between perceived inequity and dissatisfaction

yes

2 ways a partner may deal with inequity

behavioural: work to restore equity

cognitive: revise their perceptions of rewards and costs

study on equity theory

Utne et al (1984) surveyed 118 recently-married couples, measuring equity using 2 self-report scales. p’s aged 16-45 and had been together more than 2 years before marrying

found couples who saw their relationships as more equitable were more satisfied

study on cultural variations of equity theory

Aumer-Ryan et al (2007) individualist cultures value equity more, whereas collectivist individuals were happy when over benefitting

what is male-female dimorphism

attractive biological sex-specific characteristics not directly involved in reproduction e.g. females prefer tall males

content analysis showing intersexual selection

content analysis of 900 dating ads found 42% men were looking for “youthful” mates, compared to 25% women

what kind of bias does sexual selection show

alpha bias

what kind of research is typically done to show the role of self-disclosure

correlational

does filter theory have high or low temporal validity

low