Sociology 1000 - Test 2

Group Definition - Groups and Organization

Interaction of two or more people based on common interest.

Network - Groups and Organization

Web of social ties that links people that have little common identity or interaction.

Organization - Groups and Organization

A large secondary group of people participating in a division of labor, coordinated leadership for shared goal.

Close-Knit Networks - Groups and Organization

Everyone knows everyone else.

Loose-Knit Networks - Groups and Organization

Only one person knows everyone else.

Other people don’t connect with each other? One person connect others who typically otherwise wouldn’t interact.

Primary Groups - Groups and Organization

Small, Intimate, Long-Term. (eg. Family, Close Friends, etc)

Secondary Groups - Groups and Organization

Larger, less personal, task-orientated (eg. workplace, schools)

In-Groups - Groups and Organization

Groups we feel loyalty towards

Out-Groups - Groups and Organization

Groups we feel opposition towards (Feeling could also be competition)

Reference Groups - Groups and Organization

Groups we compare ourselves to for self-evaluation and improvement?

Strong Ties - Groups and Organization

Close, personal relationships…like primary groups.

“Not who you know but, who knows YOU the most

Weak Ties - Groups and Organization

Distant, less personal connections. Like secondary groups. Groups for career opportunities.

Bonding - Groups and Organization

Strengthen relationships within a group.

Bridging - Groups and Organization

Connecting different groups to spread information and resources.

Informal Groups - Groups and Organization

No defined roles or goals

Formal Groups - Groups and Organization

Explicit goals, roles, rules and responsibilities.

Primary Groups - Groups and Organization

Small groups in which relationships are both personal and enduring

Secondary Groups - Groups and Organization

Larger groups based on specific interest or activity.

Dyads (Group Structure) - Groups and Organization

Groups of two (most intimate but the lest stable)

Triads (Group Structure) - Groups and Organization

Groups of three (more stable but alliance(s) within the group)

Larger Groups (Group Structure) - Groups and Organization

More stable but less personal

Instrumental Leader - Groups and Organization

Focuses on tasks and efficiency

Expressive Leader - Groups and Organization

Focuses on group harmony and emotional well-being…chemistry.

Democratic Leader - Groups and Organization

Encourages group participation

Authoritarian Leader - Groups and Organization

Centralized control, strict rules.

Lassez-Fair Leader - Groups and Organization

Minimal interference, allow self-direction.

Group Cohesion - Groups and Organization

Level of commitment and unity among members.

Group Think - Groups and Organization

When pressure for conformity suppresses dissent and critical thinking.

Formal Organization - Groups and Organization

Larger structured, goal orientated group

Bureaucracy - Groups and Organization

An efficient, structured organization, to perform complex tasks efficiently.

Types of Social Control - Groups and Organization

Coercive power

Utilitarian Power

Normative Power

Alternatives of Control - Groups and Organization

Selection of member

Socialization on members

Characteristics of Bureaucracy - Groups and Organization

• Specialization: Each person has a specific role.

• Hierarchy of positions: Clear chain of command.

• Rules and regulations: Formal guidelines for operations.

• Technical competence: People are hired based on skills.

• Impersonal relations: Decisions based on rules, not personal connections.

• Formal communication: Written records of decisions and actions.

Problems with Bureaucracy- Groups and Organization

• Waste and incompetence

• Ritualism

• Inertia

• Alienation

• Structured inequality

Definition (Sex) - Human Sexuality

Physical differences between males and females

Gender - Human Sexuality

Social expectations based on sex

Sexual Identity - Human Sexuality

What someone feels like as…male or female

Sexual Orientation - Human Sexuality

Who someone is attracted to

Intersex Persons - Human Sexuality

Born with partial male AND female physical characteristics

Homophobia - Human Sexuality

Irrational FEAR of homosexuality in others

Heterosexism - Human Sexuality

Belifs that deny, deingrate or stigmatize non-heterosexual behaviour.

Sexual Desires - Human Sexuality

A combination of objective physical responses

Sexual Scripts - Human Sexuality

Learned guidelines (through society) for sexual behavior (when, where, how, etc)

Sexual Harassment - Human Sexuality

Unwanted sexual comments, gestures or actions

Sexual Violence (Sexual Assault) - Human Sexuality

Touching someone without consent.

Sex Work - Human Sexuality

Prostitution, escorting, pornography

Adultery - Human Sexuality

A married personal having sexual intercourse with anyone other than their spouse.

Infidelity - Human Sexuality

Any action, sexual or not that is a breach of trust, etc

Polyamory - Human Sexuality

Being in many relationships with consent of the people involved.

Pornography - Human Sexuality

Any written, visual or spoken material that is sexually explicit or graphic and is arousing our intended to be arousing.

Obscenity - Human Sexuality

Material considered offensive by society

Erotica - Human Sexuality

Artistic depictions of sexuality

Deviance - Deviance

Breaking social norms…not necessarily bad.

Crime - Deviance

Breaking the law

Social Control - Deviance

Ways society enforces behavior

Absolutist - Deviance

Deviance is always wrong

Relativist - Deviance

Deviance depends on society’s norms, which can change over time, starts with deviance though

Societal Values and Norms - Deviance

People learn what is acceptable through what they see in others.

Internalization of Norms - Deviance

People voluntarily follow rules

Sanctions - Deviance

Society rewards conformity and punishes deviance.

Positive Sanctions - Deviance

Rewards fro conformity

Negative Sanctions - Deviance

Punishments for deviance

Formal Sanctions - Deviance

Official punishments from institutes. (eg police, courts, suspension from work or something)

Informal Sanctions - Deviance

Unofficial punishments from peers (eg gossip, insults, etc)

Clarifies Moral Boundaries - Deviance

People learn what is acceptable by seeing others punished

Strengthens Social Change - Deviance

Deviants challenge the systems and if there are any holes, they can be fixed.

Strengthens Social Unity - Deviance

Groups unite against deviant behavior

Acts as a Safe Valve - Deviance

Minor deviance prevents bigger social problems

Selective Application of Norms and Laws - Deviance

The powerful define what is deviant and benifit from those definitions.

Medicalization of Deviance - Deviance

Transforming moral/legal deviance into a medical issue. Instead of punishing drug users, we call them sick and send them to rehab.

Labeling Theory - Deviance

Being labeled “Deviant” changes how others see you and consequently how you see yourself

Labeling Theory - Deviance

• Primary Deviance = The initial rule-breaking behavior, which doesn’t impact identity.

  • Example: A student cheats on one test but is still seen as a "good student."

• Secondary Deviance = When a person accepts the deviant label and continues deviant behavior.

  • Example: A student labeled as a "cheater" keeps cheating because everyone expects them to.

• Stigma = A powerful negative label that changes a person’s self-concept.

  • Example: Being labeled as a "criminal" can make it harder to get a job.

Types of Crimes - Deviance

• Consensus Crimes = Society agrees they are harmful (e.g., murder, assault).

• Contested Crimes = Society debates if they should be crimes (e.g., drug use, prostitution).

• White-Collar Crime = Financially motivated crimes by powerful people (e.g., fraud, tax evasion).

• Corporate Crime = Crimes committed by businesses (e.g., pollution, false advertising).

• Street Crime = Visible crimes like theft and assault.

• Organized Crime = Criminal organizations like the Mafia.

• Hate Crimes = Crimes motivated by race, religion, or sexual orientation.

Moral Panics and Deviance - Deviance

• Moral Panic = Widespread fear that a behavior threatens society.

  • Example: The "War on Drugs" exaggerated the dangers of marijuana.

  • Moral Crusaders = People who try to enforce moral laws (e.g., anti-abortion activists).

Social Stratification - Social Class

The ranking of people into a hierarchy based on a system.

Status and Role - Social Class

Basis for stratification. Ascribed or Achieved

Closed Systems - Social Class

No Mobility (Slavery, Caste)

Open Systems - Social Class

Some Mobility (Class System)

Intergenerational Mobility - Social Class

A child moves into a different class than their parents.

Intragenerational Mobility - Social Class

A child moves into a different class than their parents

Vertical Mobility - Social Class

Moving up or down the class hierarchy

Horizontal Mobility - Social Class

Changing jobs without changing social class

Functionalist Perspective (Davis & Moore) - Social Class

• Social inequality is necessary.

• Society needs different roles filled, and some jobs are more important than others.

• Higher rewards (money, prestige) attract people to important jobs.

  • Example: Doctors and engineers get paid more because their jobs require skill and education.

• Criticism: Ignores how people are born into privilege (e.g., rich kids have advantages).

Conflict Theory (Karl Marx) - Social Class

• Social class is based on conflict between two groups:

  1. Bourgeoisie = The rich, who own businesses and exploit workers.

  2. Proletariat = The working class, who must sell their labor.

• Capitalism leads to class struggle because:

  • The bourgeoisie control wages, profits, and production.

  • The proletariat is exploited and paid low wages.

  • The rich use ideology (media, education, laws) to stay in power.

  • Eventually, the workers will revolt and overthrow capitalism (Marx’s prediction).

• Criticism: Overlooks middle class and ignores that capitalism allows social mobility.

Max Weber’s Social Class Theory - Social Class

• Weber expanded Marx’s idea and said class has three dimensions:

  1. Class (Wealth) = Economic position (income, assets).

  2. Status (Prestige) = Social honor or respect.

  3. Power (Influence) = The ability to control others.

• Example: A teacher may not be rich (low class), but they have prestige (status) and influence over students (power).

• Weber also introduced "Status Inconsistency" = When someone has high status in one area but low in another.

  • Example: A college professor has high prestige but low income

Major Social Classes

Absolute Poverty - Social Class

Not having basic necessities

Relative Poverty - Social Class

Being poor compared to others in your society

Gender Roles - Gender

Societal expectations for how men and women should behave/life day to day.

Gender Stereotypes - Gender

Overly simple beliefs about what men and women are like.

Men are strong, women are emotional

Gender Stratification - Gender

Unequal access of males and females to poverty, prestige and power.

Glass Ceiling - Gender

Invisible barrier that prevents women from reaching the highest executive level.

Glass Escalator - Gender

Fast-tracking men in women dominated occupations

Glass Cellar- Gender

Men stuck in the most dangerous occupations

Agents of Gender Socialization - Gender

1. Parents = Treat boys and girls differently (e.g., "Boys don’t cry").

2. Toys = Dolls vs. action figures reinforce gender roles.

3. Media = Shows men as dominant and women as passive.

Essentialism (Biological Determinism) - Gender

• Gender differences are natural and based on biology.

  • Example: Men are aggressive because of testosterone.

• Criticism: Ignores cultural and historical changes in gender roles.

Social Constructionism (The Argument from Nurture) - Gender

• Gender is learned from society.

  • Example: In some cultures, men wear dresses (e.g., kilts in Scotland).

• Criticism: Ignores some biological influences.

Feminist Theory - Gender

• Gender inequality is deeply rooted in society.

• Types of Feminism:

  1. Liberal Feminism = Seeks equal rights through policy changes.

  2. Radical Feminism = Wants to overthrow patriarchal systems.

  3. Intersectional Feminism = Examines how race, class, and gender interact.

Gender and Media - Gender

• Beauty Standards = Women are pressured to meet unrealistic appearance expectations.

• Hypermasculinity = Men are taught to suppress emotions and act aggressively.

• Sexualization of Women = Women in media are often portrayed as objects of desire.

Race - Ethnicity and Racialized Groups

A social category based on physical traits