AP Psych Unit 05

memory

the persistence of learning overtime through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

encoding

the process of converting information into a form that the brain can store as a memory

connectionism

view memories as products of interconnected neural networks

sensory memory (register)

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system; includes knowledge, skill, and experience

working memory

a newer understanding of short term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning

implicit memory

retention of learned skills of classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (non declarative memory)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

recall

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time

recognition

identifying items previously learned

relearning

learning something more quickly when learning it another time

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

hierarchies

ranking or ordering information

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through mass study or practice

testing effect

repeated self-testing

self-reference effect

remembering information better when there is a relationship to it

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

infantile amnesia

inability of adults to recall personal memories from their first few years of life, typically before ages 3 to 4

flashbulb memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant memory of event

long-term potentiation (LTP)

a increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neutral basis for learning and memory

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular association in memory

context-depend memory

memory retrieval is enhanced when the external environment of situation during recall matches one present during learning

state-dependent memory

recall information between when you’re in the same internal, physical, or mental state during retrieval when you first learned it

mood-congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

encoding failure

when information never gets properly processed or stored in long-term memory, often due to inattention, distraction, or shallow processing, leading to a complete inability to recall later

storage decay

memories are forgotten or weakened overtime if they are not actively rehearsed or retrieved

retrieval failure

inability to access a memory that’s stored in your long-term memory, because you lack the right retrieval cues

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

retroactive inerference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

repression

the basic defense mechanism that banishes from conscious anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

confabulation

creating false memories or distorting real ones without intent to decieve

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

déjá vu

the eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before” cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger of an earlier experience

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideals, or people

prototypes

a mental image or best example of a category

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

expertise

well-developed knowledge

intrinsic motivation

quality of being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge than by external pressures

algorithim

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

heuristic

using existing knowledge to limit possible solutions (categorization and comparison)

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

mental set

tendency to approach a problem in on particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past (form of priming)

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representative heuristic availability

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is passed; how an issue is worded can significantly affects decisions and judgements

intelligence

the ability to learn from experiences, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

general intelligence (g)

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

analytical intelligence

the ability to analyze, evaluate, compare, and contrast information

creative intelligence

the ability to adapt to new situations and generate novel ideas

practical intelligence

the ability to adapt to solve everyday problems and adapt to one’s environment using tacit knowledge

social intelligence

the ability to understand and manage people, navigate social situations, and relate well to others

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person’s future performance

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

this and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

standardization

defining uniform resting procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretest group

normal curve

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes

Flynn effect

the observed rise in average IQ test scores across generations

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test or on retesting

validity

the extent to which a test measures of predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior

cohort

a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood

cross sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people overtime

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence tests score of 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life

Down Syndrome

a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

fixed mindset

the belief that intelligence, talents, and abilities are innate, static traits that can’t be developed

growth mindset

the belief that a person’s capacities and talents can be improved overtime