civil rights and foreign affairs in the 1950s

civil rights movement (1950s context)

a domestic struggle for racial equality that became a key front in the cold war, as soviet propaganda used u.s. discrimination to undermine democratic capitalism's image

eisenhower's stance on civil rights

president eisenhower generally favored states' rights, avoided pressuring the south, and provided limited leadership; he desegregated some d.c. facilities and military bases but regretted appointing chief justice earl warren

sweatt v. painter (1950)

supreme court case that ruled a segregated black law school in texas was inherently unequal, ordering herman sweatt's admission to the university of texas law school and challenging the "separate but equal" doctrine

brown v. board of education (1954)

landmark supreme court decision that declared state laws establishing segregated public schools unconstitutional, overturning plessy v. ferguson's "separate but equal" precedent

brown ii (1955)

a follow-up supreme court ruling hat ordered school desegregation to proceed “with all deliberate speed,” which led to slow and often resisted integration

massive resistance

a strategy declared by southern politicians like senator harry byrd of virginia to use all lawful and extralegal means to resist and defy school desegregation after the brown decisions

southern manifesto (1956)

a document signed by 101 southern members of congress condemning the brown v. board ruling as an abuse of judicial power and pledging to resist integration

montgomery bus boycott (1955-56)

a year-long protest sparked by rosa pars’ arrest, led by dr. martin luther king jr., advocating nonviolent civil disobedience; it ended with a supreme court ruling declaring buss and segregation unconstitutional

civil rights act of 1957

the first federal civil rights legislation since 1875; it was weakened by southern senators but established a civil rights commission and a civil rights division in the justice department

little rock nine (1957)

nine african american students who attempted to integrate central high school in arkansas; eisenhower eventually sent federal troops to enforce their protection and the court order

massive retaliation

eisenhower's foreign policy doctrine threatening the use of overwhelming nuclear force in response to soviet aggression, aiming to deter conflict and reduce spending on conventional forces

brinksmanship

the practice of pushing dangerous events to the brink of nuclear war to force an opponent to back down, a key tactic associated with secretary of state john foster dulles

cia in iran (1953)

covert operation (operation ajax) that orchestrated a coup to overthrow iran's nationalist prime minister mossadegh and reinstated the pro-western shah, gaining u.s. influence and oil access

cia in guatemala (1954)

covert operation that overthrew the democratically elected, left-leaning president jacobo arbenz, fearing communist influence, and installed a right-wing military dictatorship

geneva accords of 1954

agreements that temporarily divided vietnam at the 17th parallel and called for national elections in 1956 (which were never held), marking the end of french involvement

domino theory

eisenhower's rationale for involvement in vietnam; the belief that if one southeast asian nation fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow in succession like falling dominoes

ngo dinh diem

the anti-communist, catholic leader installed by the u.s. as president of south vietnam after the geneva accords; his corrupt and repressive rule fueled the rise of the viet cong

suez crisis (1956)

conflict after egypt's president nasser nationalized the canal; israel, britain, and france invaded, but eisenhower opposed them, imposing economic pressure that forced their withdrawal

sputnik (1957)

the world's first artificial satellite, launched by the soviet union; it triggered the "space race," shocked the u.s., and led eisenhower to create nasa

u-2 incident (1960)

a crisis when the soviet union shot down an american u-2 spy plane piloted by gary powers; eisenhower initially denied, then admitted to spying, shattering u.s. - soviet diplomacy

hungarian revolution (1956)

a nationwide revolt against soviet-imposed policies in hungary; the soviets brutally crushed it with military force, and the u.s., despite “rollback” rhetoric, did not intervene

cuban revolution (1959)

the movement led by fidel castro that overthrew the u.s.-backed dictator fulgenio batista, establishing a communist state aligned with the soviet union just 90 miles form the u.s.