Motivation and wellbeing

Motivation

The impetus that gives purpose or direction to behaviour and operates in humans at a conscious or unconscious level.

Components of motivation NOT ON SYLLABUS

- Activation - The decision to initiate a behaviour.

- Persistence - Continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist.

- Intensity - Concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.

Source - physiological

•Basic biological factors such as the need for food and water.

•When our physiological needs are unmet, we are motivated to take action to satisfy them.

•For example, feeling hungry motivates us to seek food.

Source - cognitions

•This is driven by an individual's thoughts, perspectives, and expectations.

•People interpret information based on individual differences and respond (are motivated) by these individual differences.

For example, someone who has an extraverted personality and perceives themselves being a good singer may be more likely to audition for X Factor than someone who is shyer and less confident

Source - emotions

•Conscious mental reactions (such as anger or fear) subjectively experienced as strong feelings

•Positive emotions (like joy or excitement) can drive us toward certain behaviours, while negative emotions (like fear or anxiety) can motivate us to avoid specific situations.

Source - social

•This involves the human need for social interaction and acceptance and is driven by the desire to belong, to be accepted by others, and to form meaningful relationships.

•E.g. Includes the influence of teachers, siblings, friends, parents, TV, such as buying a new shirt because it is fashionable

Self Determination Theory - Deci and Ryan (1985)

The concept that regulation of behaviour varies along a continuum from externally controlled (e.g., to obtain rewards or avoid punishments) to autonomous or intrinsically motivated (e.g., to have fun or explore interests).

The term self-determination refers to a person's own ability to manage themselves, to make confident choices, and to think on their own

Two assumptions of the self determination theory

- The need for growth drives behaviour, where gaining mastery over challenges is essential to develop a strong sense of self

- Autonomous motivation whereby we experience intrinsic motivation and gain knowledge and independence is important for a strong sense of self

How motivation is conceptualised - self determination theory

Motivation is conceptualised on spectrum from not-at all to completely self-determined behaviour.

What intrinsically motivates people?

People are intrinsically motivated by things that satisfy their basic psychological needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy.

How to determine type of motivation

How people are oriented to meet goals that satisfy basic needs will determine the type of motivation experienced.

Amotivation

Represents a lack of motivation that occurs when individuals feel no internal or external drive to engage in a particular behaviour.

People become amotivated towards a behaviour when the environment does not allow for the behaviour to be carried out competently

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation that stems from a desire for external rewards and is a means to an end e.g. respect from others, social recognition, money, awards.

- Reduces self determination as there is minimal autonomy because motivation is controlled by external forces

- Four subtypes which vary based on the value we give to the task and the degree of autonomy we feel.

1. External regulation (External motivation steps)

where the intention is only to receive rewards or avoid punishments.

2. Introjected regulation (External motivation steps)

external regulation that has been internalised, fulfilling obligations out of guilt or shame or to boost self-esteem.

3. Identified regulation (external motivation steps)

when individuals engage in a behaviour because they identify with its value and perceive it as personally important.

4. Integrated regulation (external motivation steps)

when individuals engage in behaviour out of identification and enjoyment but also for some personal gain, not just for the pure enjoyment of the behaviour itself.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation that stems from the incentive to engage in a specific activity that derives from pleasure in the activity itself (e.g., a genuine interest in a subject studied) rather than because of any external benefits that might be obtained (e.g., money, grades).

-Comes from the need of the individual to feel competent and self-determined.

-Behaviours that promote and enforce competency, self-determination, and give a sense of satisfaction are much more likely to be repeated

Psychological needs for motivation

self determination theory proposes that all human beings have three basic universal psychological needs - the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.

These psychological needs are essential nutriments for motivation and individuals cannot thrive without satisfying all of them

- Satisfaction of these needs facilitates self determination which supports psychological health and wellbeing.

psychological needs for motivation - autonomy

People need to feel in control of their own behaviours and goals.

When individuals feel that they have choices and can make decisions aligned with their interests and values, their intrinsic motivation increases.

psychological needs for motivation - increasing autonomy

-Providing choice and allowing individuals to express their preferences.

-Respecting individuals' perspectives and acknowledging feelings.

-Avoiding judgement.

Encouraging personal responsibility for actions.

psychological needs for motivation - decreasing autonomy

Rewards, punishments, deadlines, judgemental assessments

Psychological needs for motivation - Competance

- Refers our need to develop new skills, learn new things, and master the world around us

- Competence is linked to self-efficacy (believing that we can accomplish our goals), and mastery or the knowledge that we can gain the necessary skills and overcome all obstacles to achieve our goals.

Psychological needs for motivation - increasing competence

Providing optimal challenges - specific goals that are challenging enough, but not overwhelming

Providing positive performance feedback

Psychological needs for motivation - decreasing competance

Providing challenges that are too difficult

Negative performance feedback

Psychological needs for motivation - relatedness

The need to feel belongingness and connectedness with others.

It is satisfied by having close and genuine relationships with others and by being part of a group or community

Psychological needs for motivation - increasing relatedness

increased by environments that provide:

- Genuine care

- Mutual respect

Safety and inclusivity

Psychological needs for motivation - decreasing relatedness

- Competition

- Cliques or ostracisation

Strengths of self determination theory

Provides a comprehensive of theory of human motivation which is supported by empirical evidence and is continually evolving.

A versatile theory that can be applied to a wide range of fields such as education, work motivation, sports, and healthcare.

Limitation of self determination theory

While SDT provides a comprehensive framework for understanding motivation, it may not always accurately predict behaviour.

Lacks falsifiability as it is hard to disprove the whole theory with evidence, due to its complexity and the various constructs included in the framework.

Overemphasises the importance of autonomy and undervalues external motivations.

Humanism

•An approach to personality which states we're born with the potential for good, and will try to reach our full potential given the right conditions

Extra info (not needed)

•Humanism believes that humans are unique and therefore should not be compared to other people or animals

•Self-actualisation: Humanism believes people have the need of being motivated by the wish to grow and fulfill their potential

•Humanism believes people have free will to make their own decisions in life

Hierarchy of needs - Maslow (1954)

Levels of Motivation Based on Deficiency and Growth Needs.

A deficit model- need to fulfil the more basic needs first, and our placement can fluctuate.

Maslow - deficiency needs

•These are needs that are concerned with basic survival. They are seen as deficiency motivated as they are a means to an end. These needs arise from deprivation and are said to motivate people when they are unmet

•These needs must be met or filled before other growth needs can take over

Levels of motivation based on deficiency needs

1.Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sleep, etc.

2.Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, etc.

3.Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love., being part of a group (family, friends, work).

4.Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories:

•Esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence)

•The desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).

Maslow - Growth needs

•These needs are concerned with realising an individual's full potential and needing to 'self actualise'. Achieved through intellectual and creative behaviours. Do not stem from deprivation but rather a desire to grow

•The highest motive in the hierarchy for human behaviour. This motive takes over only when all other deficiency needs are met.

Levels of motivation based on growth needs

5.Self Actualisation - Becoming the best version of one's self - the pinnacle of self fulfilment and growth.

•The complete realisation of that of which one is capable, involving maximum development of abilities and full involvement in and appreciation for life, particularly as manifest in peak experiences.

•The need of being motivated by the wish to grow and fulfill one's potential

Maslow Strengths

•Focus on growth needs (uncommon for time as most studies/theories focused on deficit)

•Intuitive, simple, practical/applicable

•Expands on motivators outlined in self determination theory

Maslow Limitations

•Not supported by empirical evidence (unscientific approach)

•Drew conclusions from personal observations of people he knew. Ethnocentric bias (educated, intelligent, male, America, white were observed)

•Subsequent studies have had mixed results in supporting his theory (some outright reject some of his statements)

•Simplistic in explanation of motivation (e.g. self actualisation not only growth need - what about religion and spirituality?)

•Not all people have same order in hierarchy and can be reshuffled (e.g. for some people self esteem is more important than love).

•In application the theory is more flexible (does not necessarily have to satisfy all deficit needs before growth needs)

•Too optimistic (are all humans born good and on the path to self-actualisation?)

Expanded Hierarchy of Needs (1970) - cognitive

•Knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability.

•Cognitive needs drive our pursuit of knowledge and understanding (e.g. students desire to understand complex maths theories, traveller's curiosity about diverse cultures, individual's quest for deeper meaning in life).

•Meeting these needs facilitates personal growth, comprehension, deeper understanding of life and it's complexities.

Expanded Hierarchy of needs (1970) - aesthetic

•Appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form etc. Fulfilling these needs leads to a deeper sense of satisfaction and harmony in life as individuals seek environments and experiences that are pleasing and resonant with their sense of beauty.

•This involves the appreciation and pursuit of art, music, nature and other forms of aesthetic expression.

•Fulfilling these needs isn't just about physical beauty but also emotional and psychological satisfaction derived from experiencing order and elegance.

Expanded Hierarchy of needs (1970) - transendace

•A person is motivated by values that transcend beyond personal self. Beyond self actualisation they represent the human desire to connect with a higher reality, purpose or the universe.

•This level emphasises altruism, spiritual connection and helping others achieve their potential.

•Individuals seek experiences that move beyond personal concerns, aiming to achieve a deep sense of unity, understanding and belonging within the vast expanses of existence.

•Examples - mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature, service to others, pursuit of religion, religion, faith, spirituality etc.

Expanded Hierarchy of needs (1970) strengths

•Focus on growth needs (uncommon for time as most studies/theories focused on deficit)

•Intuitive, simple, practical/applicable

•Expands on motivators outlined in self determination theory

Expanded Hierarchy of needs (1970) limitations

•Not supported by empirical evidence (unscientific approach)

•Drew conclusions from personal observations of people he knew. Ethnocentric bias (educated, intelligent, male, America, white were observed)

•Subsequent studies have had mixed results in supporting his theory (some outright reject some of his statements)

•Not all people have same order in hierarchy and can be reshuffled (e.g. for some people self esteem is more important than love).

•In application the theory is more flexible (does not necessarily have to satisfy all deficit needs before growth needs)

Characteristics of a self actualised person

•Reality focused and problem-centered

•The journey is often more important than the ends.

•They enjoy solitude, and are comfortable being alone.

•Enjoy deeper personal relations with a few close friends and family members

•They have a sense of humility and respect towards others

•They have a certain freshness of appreciation, an ability to see things, even ordinary things, with wonder.

•They are creative, inventive, and original.

•Tend to have more peak experiences than the average person.

•A peak experience is one that takes you out of yourself, that makes you feel very tiny, or very large, to some extent one with life or nature

Wellbeing

◦A state of happiness and contentment, with low levels of distress, overall good physical and mental health and outlook, or good quality of life.

Subjective Wellbeing - model of subjective wellbeing - Diener (1984)

◦People's cognitive and affective evaluations of their lives

◦According to Diener's theory of subjective well-being, two components are examined:

oAffective balance

oLife Satisfaction

◦They are considered distinct but interrelated because individuals tend to make judgments of satisfaction (e.g., "My life is fantastic") using their emotional experiences (e.g., "I'm feeling great right now")

Affective Balance - Subjective wellbeing

◦The emotional component of subjective wellbeing.

◦ It involves two aspects:

Positive Affect (PA): This refers to the experience of pleasant emotions and moods.

-A person with high SWB should experience many positive states such as joy, hope, and pride.

Negative Affect (NA): This refers to the experience of unpleasant, distressing emotions and moods

- A person with high SWB should experience infrequent negative states such as anger, jealousy, and disappointment.

Measuring Affective Balance - Subjective Wellbeing

◦ using self-report rating scales such as the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE) which measure both positive and affect.

◦People higher in affective balance report significantly more positive than negative affect, whereas people low in affective balance report more equal levels of positive and negative affect (or, at an extreme, more negative than positive affect).

Life Satisfaction - Subjective Wellbeing

◦The cognitive component of subjective wellbeing.

◦The overall assessment a person makes of their life and their own experiences.

◦Diener developed the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) to measure this component, which included the following five questions:

◦In most ways my life is close to my ideal.

◦The conditions of my life are excellent.

◦I am satisfied with my life.

◦So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.

◦If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.\

◦The components of SWB differ in their stability and variability over time and in their relations with other variables.

Factors influencing life satisfaction - Income

◦Income has a positive correlation with SWB, however it weakens as income increases.

◦The association between income and affective well-being is weaker than that between income and cognitive well-being, as some research has shown unemployed people had significantly less life satisfaction than employed people but did not differ in their daily affective well-being.

Factors influencing life satisfaction - Social construct

◦The quality and quantity of our social interactions can greatly affect our subjective well-being.

◦Strong, supportive relationships and regular social interaction are often associated with higher levels of happiness.

Factors influencing life satisfaction - Personality

◦Certain personality traits, such high levels of extraversion and low levels of neuroticism are strongly correlated with higher subjective well-being.

◦These traits can influence how a person perceives and reacts to their circumstances, which in turn can affect their happiness

Factors influencing life satisfaction - Health

◦Both physical and mental health can significantly influence a person's subjective well-being.

◦Good health is often associated with higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction.

Signs of Subjective Wellbeing

◦Satisfied with social life

◦Not lonely

◦Being accepting of other people

◦Being socially engaged

◦Belongingness and being accepted by others

◦Community support and resources

◦Experiencing a sense of meaning and purpose

◦Feeling independent

◦Feeling like your life is close to what you think of as the ideal life

◦Feeling as if the conditions of your life are excellent

◦Feeling that you have gotten the things that you want in life

◦Having more positive emotions than negative ones

◦Having opportunities to engage in spiritual practices

◦Mastering areas that are important to you

◦Physical wellness such as feeling like you are getting enough sleep, exercise, and nutritious food

◦Self-acceptance

Strengths of Subjective Wellbeing

◦Applicable across multiple cultural contexts as its main components are universal.

◦Comprehensive and holistic approach to wellbeing.

Strengths of subjective Wellbeing

◦Mainly focuses on personal experiences and emotions of the individual. External factors also impact wellbeing (e.g. social relationships, finances, working conditions, cultural influences).

◦Self report measures act as the basis of the model - contain biases, tendency to exaggerate responses, socially desirable responses etc.

psychological wellbeing- six factor model of wellbeing - Ryff (1989)

•Psychological well-being comes from optimal human functioning that produces more positive emotions and satisfaction.

•Identified the limitations of existing research on wellbeing including:

-an over-focus on ill-being

-a failure to treat the construct of wellbeing as dynamic rather than static

•To address these problems, she integrated the perspectives of several existing theories from the fields of lifespan development, personal growth and mental health to reveal six dimensions that make up psychological wellbeing.

Psychological Wellbeing - Autonomy

Refers to an individual's sense of independence and self-direction; seeking personal evaluation not from others but from within themselves using their own standards.

Psychological Wellbeing - High autonomy

-Self-determining and independent

-Able to resist social pressures to think and act in certain ways

-Regulates behaviour from within

-Evaluates self by personal standards

Psychological Wellbeing - Low Autonomy

-Is concerned about the expectations and evaluations of others

-Relies on judgments of others to make important decisions

-Conforms to social pressures to think and act in certain ways

Psychological Wellbeing - Environmental Mastery

Refers to an individual's ability to effectively manage their environment; rather than accepting things for how they are, it involves manipulating the surroundings to best suit personal needs

Psychological wellbeing - High environmental Mastery

- Controls complex array of external activities

- Makes effective use of surrounding opportunities

- Able to choose or create contexts suitable to personal needs and values

Psychological wellbeing - Low environmental Mastery

- Has difficulty managing everyday affairs

- Feels unable to change or improve surrounding context

- Is unaware of surrounding opportunities

- Lacks sense of control over external world

Psychological wellbeing - Personal growth

Refers to an ongoing process of self-improvement, learning, and development.

Psychological wellbeing - High Personal growth

- Has a feeling of continued development and sees self as growing and expanding

- Is open to new experiences

- Has a sense of realising their potential

- Sees improvement in self and behaviour over time

- Is changing in ways that reflect more self-knowledge and effectiveness

Psychological Wellbeing - low personal growth

- Has a sense of personal stagnation

- Lacks sense of improvement or expansion over time

- Feels bored and uninterested with life

- Feels unable to develop new attitudes or behaviours

Psychological Wellbeing - positive relations with others

Refers to the importance in forming genuine relationships with other people and believing in the significance of forming empathetic connections with others.

Psychological wellbeing - high positive relations

- Has warm, satisfying, trusting relationships with others

- Is concerned about the welfare of others

- Capable of strong empathy, affection, and intimacy

- Understands the give and take of human relationships

Psychological wellbeing - low positive relations

- Has few close, trusting relationships with others

- Finds it difficult to be warm, open, concerned about others

- Is isolated and frustrated in interpersonal relationships

- Not willing to make compromises to sustain important ties with others

Psychological Wellbeing - purpose in life

Refers to having a clear sense of direction and feeling that one's actions contribute to a greater purpose or goal, which may evolve over time.

psychological Wellbeing - high purpose in life

- Has goals in life and a sense of directedness

- Feels there is meaning to present and past life

- Holds beliefs that give life purpose

Has aims and objectives for living

Psychological Wellbeing - low purpose in life

- Lacks a sense of meaning in life

- Has few goals or aims, lacks sense of direction

- Does not see purpose in past life

- Has no outlooks or beliefs that give life meaning

Psychological Wellbeing - self acceptance

An individual's acknowledgment of their personal strengths, weaknesses and past decisions and behaviours, and having a positive view of oneself, even with imperfections.

Psychological Wellbeing - High self acceptance

- Possesses a positive attitude toward the self

- Acknowledges and accepts multiple aspects of self including good and bad qualities

- Feels positive about past life

Psychological Wellbeing - low self acceptance

- Feels dissatisfied with self

- Is disappointed with what has occurred in past life

- Is troubled about certain personal qualities

- Wishes to be different than what they are

Psychological Wellbeing scale

•Ryff developed three scales (long, medium and short form) with measure six components of psychological wellbeing.

•The long and medium forms have high levels of internal consistency & reliability

•The short form however lacks reliability

•Similar to all self report measures, social desirability is a limitation and Ryff suggested that observational data may also be needed to complement the data collected from the rating scales.