AP Psych Unit 2B: Cognitive Psychology

Concepts

The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototypes

We form concepts with mental images or typical examples

Schemas

Cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information

Assimilation

Process of incorporating new experience into our current understanding (Schema)

Accommodation

The process of adjusting a schema and modifying it

Algorithms

methodical, logical, rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem

Heuristics

Are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently (rule of thumb, mental shortcuts), faster and more error prone

Mental Set

Tendency to approach a problem in a particular way especially if that way was successful in the past (helpful or not)

Insight

Involves a sudden novel realization of solution to a problem (a-ha! moment)

Framing

Decisions and judgements may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed or contextualized

Functional fixedness

a tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object; inability to see a tool from a fresh perspective

Representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent or march a particular prototype

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory

Gambler’s fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn’t occurred recently

Sunk-cost fallacy

the phenomenon in which someone is reluctant to abandon something b/c they have invested in it (abandonment would be more beneficial)

Executive functioning

cognitive processes (frontal lobe) that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking (creatively)

Convergent thinking

using info to figure out one good concrete solution to problem (more logic-oriented)

Divergent thinking

using information to generate multiple ideas/solutions to a problem (more creative)

Encoding

info in

Storage

info saved

Retrieval

info brought back

Working memory model of memory

active processing and manipulation

Central executive

directs focus/attention (ex. decide to take a study break)

Phonological loop

stores sound information and continuously rehearsals it

Visuospatial scetchpad

constructs/manipulates visual images to create metal visual maps

Sensory memory

intake of sensory info from the external environment

Iconic, echoic, and haptic memory

Intake of sensory info from environment (iconic=eye=.5 sec, Echoic=ear=3-4 sec, Haptic=touch= <1 sec)

Short-term memory

stores 7+- items, duration abt 20 seconds, w/o meaningful rehearsal info is forgotten

No rehearsal

information in STM rapidly decays

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeated processing of information at the same level short lasting

Elaborative rehearsal

Processing of information at a deeper level, make info personal connect meaning/info already known, more likely to be stored in long-term memory

Long-term memory

infinite storage space; can be retrieved and remembered.

Explicit memory

events and facts; hippocampus

Episodic memory

Events; hippocampus

Semantic memory

facts; hippocampus

Procedural memory

motor skills; cerebellum

Prospective memory

remembering to remember to do something in future; can be enhanced with internal/external cues; combo of long-term working

Long-term potentiation

persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons;

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of info (ex. space, time, frequency)

Effortful processing

Conscious processing of information

Structural encoding

Encoding the visual structure of a word

Phonemic encoding

encoding of sounds of words

Semantic encoding

Encoding of meaning

Serial position effect

When your recall is better for the first and last items on a list

Primacy effect

(first terms) more rehearsal, better encoding

Recency effect

(last items) most recent, still in STM

Spacing effect

retain info better when we rehearse over time

Massed practice

practicing all at once, less effective, what is learned quickly is forgotten quickly

Distributed practice

repetitive, spaced practice, more effective

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units

Categories and hierarchies

complex info broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Mnemonic devices

using the first letter of a series of objects to create a phrase

Method of loci/memory palace

use of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance information encoding/recall

Autobiographical memory

a memory for one’s personal history - includes facts, episodes, emotional and personal interpretations of those episodes

Recognition

Identify an item amongst other choices

Recall

retrieve information w/o external cues

Priming

Activation of one of the association that leads to retrival of certain concept from LTM

Context-dependent memory

memory retrieval improves when context of retrieval matches context of learning (testing where you learn)

Mood-dependent memory

memory of retrieval improves when mood of retrieval matches mood of learning

State-dependent memory

memory is best retrieved when you’re in the same physiological state as you were when you learned (drunk/sober)

Testing effect

a direct rehearsal of retrieval practice, leads to highest level of recall

Metacognition

thinking about thinking, describes your awareness and understanding of your own internal thought process

Infantile amnesia

inability to remember memories from childhood (typically 0-3 years old), hippocampus is still myelinating

Encoding failure

cannot retrieve info that you don’t encode well

Ebbinghaus curve of forgetting

what is learned quickly is forgotten quickly, memory weakens over time, neuroplasticity

Storage decay

memories decay in LTM storage w/o use, retention drops early and then levels off

retrieval failure/tip of the tounge

Information is retained in LTM but it cannot be accessed, some retrieval cues accessed, but retrieval is inaccurate

Proactive interference

Prior learning disrupts the recall of new infor

Retroactive interference

New learning disrupts the recall of old info

Retrograde amnesia

cannot recall old memories

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories

Alzheimer’s disease

Neurodegenerative leads to dementia, combination of genetic and lifestyle choices

Flashbulb memories

A unique and highly emotional moment may give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent memory; often not accurate (ex. 9/11, car accident)

Elizabeth Loftus and misinformation effect

New, misleading information you learn after an event can influence your memory of the original event

Constructive memory

You’re not remembering an actual event, you’re remembering the last time you discussed the event (and incorporating new info; the mind is malleable

Repression (psychodynamic theory)

A defense mechanism that involves unconsciously blocking unwanted thoughts, feelings, memories, and impulses from the conscious mind; used for self protection against troubling thoughts

Source amnesia

Assigning a memory to the wrong source (ex. thinking someone is famous because their name is well known)

Intelligence: nature or nurture?

• some of both

• twin studies

• genetics vs. access to environment

Crystallized Intelligence

Previously learned skills, facts, and general knowledge (education dependent - nurture)

Fluid Intelligence

thinking and problem solving, without reliance on prior knowledge (more nature)

General Intelligence

summation of specific abilities

Specific Intelligence

mechanical, verbal, spatial, numerical, musical, interpersonal

Achievement Test

Intended to reflect what you have already learned (ex. unit tests for AP Psych)

Aptitude test

Intended to predict your ability to learn a new skill (ex. career path test)

Early IQ testing (Stanford-Binet)

purely verbal and mathematical; IQ = (mental age/chronological age)100; Very problematic

Modern IQ testing (WAIS)

Verbal and “performance” testing, spatial awareness, pattern identification, working memory; attempt to change from just strict numbers and verbal reasoning

Standardization

Consistent procedures and environments for testing, defining the meaning of scores by comparing them to a specific pre-tested group, may provide a scale

Reliability

A test that yields consistent results; reproducability

Inter-rater reliability

The extent to which graders of a test agree on the score (ex. one scorer gives 10, another gives 1)

Test-retest reliability

Measure the stability of the test scores over time (ex. taking an IQ test 5 times and getting different scores)

Split half reliability

Divide test into two halves (ex. all even answers and all odd answers)

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure

Construct Validity

The extent to which a test measures understanding (ex. how well does the U5 quiz test U5 understanding)

Predictive validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts a particular behavior/trait (ex. good at AP psych → good at college psych)

Flynn effect

Global IQ scores increase steadily every decade; higher socioeconomic status, health care, and tech access allow more abstract thinking

Education inequity

some scores on intelligence test have been used to limit access to jobs, military ranks, educational institutions, and immigration to the US (ex. feature profile test)

Stereotype threat

Individuals fear they may confirm negative stereotypes about their identity (gender, race, sexual orientation)

Fixed mindset

believes that talent is static

Growth mindset

learns and grows from failures, believes in skill development