Paper 3 Pyshcology

Research Methods, Sampling Techniques, Ethics, Generalizability/Transferring, Bias, Credibility

Qualitative Research is made from:

Observations, interviews and focus group

Naturalistic observation

observing subject in their natural envrionment

field notes are often used to gather data

Covert Observations

participants are not aware they are being observed

Overt observations

participants know they are being observed

Participant observation

when the researcher becomes part of the group being studied to obtain an inside perspective, but can lead to researcher bias

Non-participant observation

when the researcher is not part of the group being observed and observes from a distance without interacting with the participants

Semi-structured interviews

they follow an interview schedule

elaboration and deviation are allowed

open and closed ended questions are also allowed

resembles a conversation

Un-structured interviews

there are topics to cover but the precise order and questions are not fixed

the interview evolves from the relationship with researcher builds with the participant

open and closed ended questions are also allowed

Qualitative interviews

a face to face discussion where the researcher will ask the participant questions to collect data

Focus groups

a group discussion with 6-10 people along with the researcher to initiate the conversation

they are great because they can help participants remember information they would have forgotten in a one on one interview

Lab experiment

manipulating the iv and dv variables

control over extraneous variables

can form a cause and effect relationship

Field experiment

takes place in a naturalistic setting, and they examine the effect of an IV on a DV, but there is not full control over extraneous variables

Natural experiment

the IV is naturally occurring, but still examining the effect of an IV on a DV but no full control over extraneous variables

Correlational study

investigating if two naturally occurring variables are related, you do not manipulate the IV

the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables is shown in a correlational coefficient (a type of statistic).

Case study

a rich in depth investigation/observation that uses quantiative and qualitative methods to collect data

Quasi experiment

participants are allocated into groups based on measurable characteristics ex. score on a depression scale, male and female, and ethnicity. no random allocation is possible here, but still studying the effect of an IV on a DV

Random sampling

participants are randomly selected from a target population

everyone has an equal chance of being selected, and findings are usually better representative of the target population

reduces sampling bias

Self-selected/volunteer sampling

participants approach the researchers and volunteer to be part of the study. participants here are usually more committed because they chose to participate.

Opportunity Sampling

taking participants who happen to be a convenient time and place to take part in the study. convenient for the researchers, as they do not have to find participants

Snowball sampling

participants who are in the study recruit other people to join. the sample will continue to grow until sufficient numbers are needed for the study. can lead to sampling bias

Purposive sampling

researchers select participants with relevant characteristics/traits that are of interest to the researchers. researchers purposefully select the people to take part in the study.

Ethics in reporting the results

confidentiality - protecting identity - not tracing responses to participants

consent - informed consent needs to be obtained for researchers to use someones data

right to withdraw - if participants are not happy with their results they can choose to withdraw and not include their data in the findings

Applying the findings Number 1

Researchers must be very clear about who their sample was made up of and to whom the findings can be generalized.

If the sample is small and non-probability, then you cannot generalize the findings to other contexts

Applying the findings Number 2

to see if the results are credible, there must be reflexivity among the researcher(s). researchers have to reflect if they have any pre-existing knowledge/bias related to the topic being studied

Applying the findings Number 3

researchers have to be careful to not mis-apply or mis-interpret the findings to a population that has no similarities nor relevance to the study.

researchers have to be careful not to apply the findings to a socially disadvantaged/marginalized groups as this can cause cultural and/or social stigmas

Qualitative transferring findings 1

Inferential - can the findings be transferred to other people and real-life settings (mundane)?

Researchers must provide thick descriptions; detailed information about the conditions of the study, so people can see the extent to transferring the findings to another setting/people.

Qualitative transferring findings 2

Representational - can the findings be transferred to a wider population of people?

Sample? are the participants in the study too specific and not random enough to generalize to a broader population?

Qualitative transferring findings 3

Theoretical - if the stimulus talks about a theory, then how do the findings relate to the broader theory? If the study does not mention a theory, then ask if there is any more research

Quantiative generalizability 3 things

Construct validity

population validity

ecological validity

Define credibility

The extent to which the findings are trustworthy, accurate and correctly representative of the interpretations of the participants rather than a misinterpretation of the data

Credibility steps

research triangulation

method triangulation

reflexivity

was this method the best possible method to ensure credibility

other published research done in this sector?

Define bias

The systematic errors in thinking, research and practice that can affect the validity and reliability of psychological findings

Bias steps

define bias

researcher triangulation

double blind technique

reflexivity

pilot study

checking sampling bias

peer review

was this the best possible way to prevent bias?