AP PSYCH UNIT 9

Developmental psychology

The scientific study of physical cognitive and social changes across the lifespan

Nature vs nurture

Debate over the influence of genetics versus environment on development

Continuity vs stages

Debate over whether development is gradual or occurs in distinct steps

Stability vs change

Debate over whether personality traits stay the same or change throughout life

Cross sectional study

Research comparing people of different ages at one time

Longitudinal study

Research that follows the same group of people over time

Cross sequential design

Combines cross sectional and longitudinal methods to reduce cohort effects

Chromosomes

Threadlike DNA structures carrying genetic information with 23 pairs in humans

Genes

Segments of DNA that code for specific traits

Polygenic inheritance

When multiple genes influence a single trait

Zygote

Fertilized egg cell formed when sperm and egg unite

Germinal period

First two weeks after conception when the zygote forms and implants in the uterus

Embryonic period

Two to eight weeks when major organs and structures begin to develop

Fetal period

From eight weeks to birth marked by growth and functional development

Teratogens

Harmful agents such as alcohol drugs or viruses that can cause birth defects

Critical period

A specific time when certain organs or abilities are most sensitive to outside influences

Synaptogenesis

Rapid formation of new connections between neurons especially during infancy

Neural pruning

Process of eliminating unused neural connections to improve brain efficiency

Myelination

Formation of a fatty sheath around neurons that speeds up neural transmission

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to reorganize and form new connections throughout life

Infant reflexes

Automatic responses like rooting sucking grasping and Moro reflex that aid survival

Cephalocaudal pattern

Physical growth proceeds from head to toe

Proximodistal pattern

Physical growth proceeds from the center of the body outward

Schema

Mental framework for organizing and interpreting information

Assimilation

Fitting new experiences into existing schemas

Accommodation

Changing existing schemas to fit new information

Sensorimotor stage

From birth to age two experiencing the world through senses and actions and developing object permanence

Preoperational stage

From age two to seven symbolic thinking egocentrism and lack of conservation

Concrete operational stage

From age seven to twelve logical thinking about concrete objects and mastery of conservation

Formal operational stage

Age twelve and older abstract and hypothetical reasoning develops

Object permanence

Understanding that objects still exist when not seen

Lev Vygotsky

Emphasized the role of social interaction and culture in cognitive development

Zone of proximal development

The range between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help

Scaffolding

Guided support that helps a child learn a task and is gradually withdrawn

Private speech

Self directed speech used by children to guide behavior

Cooing

Two months stage when infants produce vowel like sounds

Babbling

Six months stage when infants repeat consonant and vowel sounds

One word stage

Around one year using single words for whole ideas

Telegraphic speech

Around eighteen months combining two words such as want cookie

Overregularization

Applying grammar rules too widely such as saying goed

Language acquisition device

Inborn ability that enables humans to learn language naturally

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

The idea that language influences how we think

Trust vs mistrust

Infants learn if their needs will be met developing trust or mistrust

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

Toddlers learn independence and self control

Initiative vs guilt

Preschoolers learn to take initiative and plan activities

Industry vs inferiority

Elementary age children develop a sense of competence and productivity

Identity vs role confusion

Adolescents explore who they are and develop a personal identity

Intimacy vs isolation

Young adults form close relationships or feel isolated

Generativity vs stagnation

Middle adults contribute to society or feel a lack of purpose

Integrity vs despair

Older adults reflect on life with satisfaction or regret

Harry Harlow

Showed that attachment is based on comfort rather than just food using infant monkeys

Mary Ainsworth

Identified secure avoidant ambivalent and disorganized attachment styles

Temperament

Innate emotional reactivity and intensity present from birth

Easy temperament

Regular adaptable and happy infants

Difficult temperament

Irregular not adaptable and often irritable infants

Slow to warm up temperament

Initially cautious but gradually become more comfortable

Kohlberg moral reasoning

Development of moral thought in three levels and six stages

Stage one obedience and punishment

Morality based on avoiding punishment

Stage two individualism and exchange

Morality based on gaining rewards or fair exchange

Stage three good boy good girl

Morality based on seeking approval and maintaining relationships

Stage four law and order

Morality based on obeying rules and maintaining social order

Stage five social contract

Morality based on laws being flexible and promoting fairness

Stage six universal ethical principles

Morality guided by conscience and universal justice which is rare

Carol Gilligan

Criticized Kohlberg for focusing on male reasoning and emphasized moral reasoning based on care and responsibility

Puberty

Period of sexual maturation leading to the ability to reproduce

Primary sex characteristics

Reproductive organs and structures directly involved in reproduction

Secondary sex characteristics

Non reproductive physical traits such as voice change or body hair

Imaginary audience

Belief that others are constantly watching and judging you

Personal fable

Belief in one own uniqueness and invulnerability

Adolescent brain changes

Increased synaptic growth followed by neural pruning in the prefrontal cortex while the limbic system matures earlier

Emerging adulthood

Transitional period from age eighteen to twenty five between adolescence and adulthood

Menopause

End of menstruation and reproductive capability in women

Andropause

Gradual decline in testosterone and sexual function in men

Cognitive aging

Processing speed slows some memory declines while crystallized intelligence stays stable

Neuroplasticity in adulthood

Brain can still form new neural connections but at a slower rate

Kubler Ross stages of dying

Denial then anger then bargaining then depression then acceptance