Chapter 8: Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

Thinking

the use of knowledge, or information we have stored in long-term memory

Mental Representations

bits of memory representing objects, events, people, and other things not actually present now

Semantics (meanings and concepts) and visual terms

What do we use to think? (2)

Stronger encoding

Improves recall

What are advantages of visual encoding? (2)

Visual Images

Mental pictures of objects, places, or events as mental representation

Verbal knowledge

Using language-based descriptions rather than pictures as mental representation

Concepts

categories of objects, events, or ideas that have common properties

allow us to organize our thinking around predictable interactions with surroundings

Superordinate categories

Broad categories (e.g., animal, vehicle).

Basic Level categories

More specific and commonly used categories (e.g., dog, car)

Subordinate Categories

Most specific category (e.g., golden retriever, Tesla Model S).

Formal concepts

well-defined rules determine category (e.g., car)

Natural Concepts

have characteristic details, without a fixed set defined feature; typically learned (e.g., beauty, love)

Prototype

most typical example of a concept; often the benchmark against which other examples of the concept are compared

Exemplar

mental representation of an actual instance of given category (e.g., penguin to a cardinal)

Well-structured problems

Problems with a clear solution path (e.g., solving a math equation)

ill-structured problems

Problems with no clear path to a solution (e.g., deciding on a career)

Creativity

The ability to generate new, original, and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

the process of brainstorming multiple possible solutions

Convergent thinking

The process of narrowing ideas down to find the best one

Functional fixedness

The tendency to see objects only for their typical use

Mental set

Relying on past problem-solving methods, even when ineffective.

Deductive reasoning

Reasoning from a general principle to a specific conclusion. (e.g., "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.")

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning from specific observations to a general conclusion. (e.g., "Every cat I’ve seen has fur. Therefore, all cats have fur.")

Loss Aversion

The fear of losses outweighing the desire for gains (e.g., preferring to avoid a $10 loss over gaining $10).

Risk aversion

Reluctance to take chances (e.g., sticking with a low-paying but secure job rather than a risky high-paying one).

Availability heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. (e.g., thinking plane crashes are more common than car accidents because they are widely reported.)

Representativeness heuristic

Judging probability based on similarity to a prototype. (e.g., assuming someone wearing a lab coat is a doctor rather than a scientist.)

Affective heuristic

Making decisions based on emotional responses rather than facts. (e.g., rejecting a job offer because it "feels wrong.")

Biolinguistic theory

Humans have an innate ability to learn language (proposed by Noam Chomsky).

Used-Based Theory

Language is learned through social interactions and cognitive skills.

Babbling Stage

Infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel sounds (4-6 months).

One-word stage

Infants say single words (12 months).

Two word Stage

Children begin to use mini sentences (18-24 months).

Telegraphic Stage

Children use short, grammatically incomplete phrases (2+ years).

Spearman’s g factor

Intelligence is a single general ability.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

Intelligence includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

Binet’s contribution

Developed the first intelligence test to identify children needing special education.

IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100 (original formula).

What is the IQ Formula?

Linguistic

Sensitivity to language and the ability to use it effectively.

Logical-mathematical

The capacity for problem-solving, reasoning, and understanding complex concepts.

Spatial

The ability to think in three dimensions and visualize objects.

Musical

The ability to recognize, create, and appreciate musical patterns

Bodily-kinesthetic

The skill to use one’s body effectively for physical tasks

Interpersonal

The ability to understand and interact well with others.

Intrapersonal

The capacity for self-awareness and self-reflection.

Naturalistic

Sensitivity to nature and the ability to understand natural phenomena.

Existential

The ability to contemplate deep questions about existence and human experience.

Alfred Binet

developed the first intelligence test

To identify children who needed special education

Why was the first intelligence test created?

both genetics and the environment (e.g., nutrition, education, and stimulation).

What are the main influences on intelligence?

Reliability, validity

What qualities must a good test have? (2)

Realiability

The degree to which the test yields consistent measurements over time

Validity

the degree to which the test measure what it was designed to measure

Spearman’s g Factor

Intelligence is a single general ability; General Intelligence

Crystallized Intelligence (Cattell)

our accumulated knowledge

Fluid Intelligence (Cattell)

how fast and efficiently we learn new information and solve novel problems

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

The theory that people possess multiple types of intelligence

Robert Sternberg

Who came up with he Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?

Analytical Intelligence

Uses logic to reason through problems

Practical intelligence

Ability to adapt to our environment.

Practical Intelligence

Uses knowledge of the world in novel situations.

Emotional Intelligence

Awareness and management of emotions, including self-awareness, self-control, and motivation.

Self-awareness, self-confidence, self-control, trustworthiness, motivation, commitment, initiative, optimism.

Key components of Emotional Intelligence (8)

IQ alone is insufficient for success; emotions guide actions and decisions.

Goleman’s Critique of IQ