Intro To Biological Anthropology

anthropology

the holistic study of humankind, examining human biology, culture, history, and language across all societies and time periods

cultural anthropology

the study of human societies and cultures, focusing on how people live, think, and interact within their social and cultural contexts

archaeology

the scientific study of the ancient and recent human past through the recovery and analysis of material remains

linguistic anthropology

the study of language in its social and cultural context, examining how language shapes thought and culture, influences social structures like identity and power, and changes over time

biological anthropology

the scientific subfield of anthropology that studies the biological and behavioral aspects of humans, our ancestors, and related non-human primates from

ethnography

the scientific description of the customs of individual people and cultures

participant observation

an ethnographic research method where the researcher immerses themselves in a community to gain a deep, holistic, and insider understanding of its culture and social dynamics

material culture

refers to the physical objects and architecture created, used, and left behind by a society, encompassing artifacts, buildings, and even natural objects modified by people

artifacts

an object of material that has been intentionally made, produced, or modified by humans, providing insight into the culture and behavior of its creators and users

features

a non-portable, human-made or altered aspect of an archaeological site that cannot be easily removed or studied in a lab

genetics

the study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics

primateology

the study of non-human primates’ biology, behavior, evolution, and ecology

ostegology

the study of bones, used to analyze human skeletal remains in various contexts, including archaeology, paleontology, and forensic science

forensic anthropology

applies physical anthropological principles to identify unknown human remains in medicolegal contexts, such as criminal investigations

human biology

the study of human evolution, biology, and behavior from an evolutionary perspective

paleoanthropology

the study of early human evolution, using biological and cultural evidence such as fossil skeletal remains, stone tools, and footprints

foodways

studies the cultural, social, and economic practices surrounding food, examining how it is acquired, prepared, shared, and consumed, and how these practices are intertwined with a culture’s identity

ancient DNA

genetic material recovered from ancient specimens like bones, teeth, or sediments

Franz Boas

an anthropologist known as a pioneer of modern anthropology, also known as the “father of American anthropology”

Earnest Hooton

an anthropologist known for his work on racial classification and his popular writings such as the book Up From the Ape

Sherwood Washburn

an anthropologist who was a pioneer in the field of primatology, opening it to the study of primates in their natural habitats

eukaryote

an organism whose cell contains a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles

prokaryote

a single-celled organism, such as bacteria or archaea, whose cell lacks a distinct, membrane-bound nucleus and other complex internal organelles

nucleus

the central part of either a eukaryotic cell, containing DNA and controlling cell activities, or an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons

cytoplasm

a gel-like substance that fills the cell and holds all the other cell parts in their place

nuclear DNA

the primary genetic material found in the cell nucleus, organized into chromosomes, and contains the majority of an organism’s genes

mitochondrial DNA

the small, circular DNA found in the mitochondria, organelles within cells that generate most of the cell’s energy

ribosome

a molecular machine found in all living cells that synthesizes proteins by translating mRNA into a specific sequence of amino acids

endoplasmic reticulum

a network of membranes that synthesizes proteins, lipids, and steroids, folds and processes proteins

adenine

a purine base essential to life, acting as a building block for the nucleic acids DNA and RNA

guanine

one of the four nucleobases in DNA and RNA, pairing with cytosine

thymine

one of the four nucleobases in DNA, pairing with adenine

cytosine

one of the four nucleotide bases in DNA and RNA, pairing with guanine

uracil

a nitrogenous base and pyrimidine found in RNA, pairing with adenine

nucleotide

the basic building block of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA

DNA replication

the fundamental biological process where a cell’s DNA is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules

mutation

a permanent alteration to a DNA sequence, which can lead to changes in an organism’s traits, the function of a protein, or even cancer

protein

the building blocks of life, the basic structure of protein is a chain of amino acids

codons

a sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule that specifies a particular amino acid or acts as a signal to start/stop protein synthesis

anticodons

a three-nucleotide sequence on a tRNA molecule that binds to a complementary three-nucleotide sequence on an mRNA molecule

transcription

the process of creating an RNA copy of a segment of DNA, carrying genetic instructions for making proteins

mRNA

messenger RNA, a single-stranded RNA molecule that carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes in the cytoplasm to build proteins

tRNA

transfer RNA, small RNA molecules that function as adapter molecules during protein translation

amino acids

molecules that combine to form proteins

polypeptide

a long chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds

chromosomes

a thread-like structure located in the nucleus of cells that carry genetic information in the form of DNA

karotype

a visual display of an individuals chromosomes, showing their number, size and shape, which can be used to identify genetic abnormalities

diploid

a cell or organism that contains two complete sets of chromosomes, each inherited from each parent

haploid

a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes

gamete

a mature male or female sex cell that combines with another gamete of the opposite sex to form a new organism

gene

a basic unit of heredity, a segment of DNA that provides instructions for creating proteins or other molecules needed for an organism’s development and function

allele

one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome

homologous/nonhomologous

homologous chromosomes are similar pairs that have the same genes in the same order, one inherited from each parent, non-homologous chromosomes differ in size and carry different sets of genes

homozygous/heterozygous

homozygous refers to having two identical alleles for a gene, while heterozygous refers to having two different alleles for the same gene

sex chromosome

the x and y chromosomes in humans, females typically have two X chromosomes and makes have one X and one Y

genome

the complete set of genetic information, or DNA, in an organism or cell

mitosis

the process of cell division in eukaryotic cells that results in two genetically identical daughter cells

meiosis

cell division process that produces gametes for sexual reproduction

crossing over

a biological process where homologous chromosomes exchange segments of DNA, resulting in gametes with a unique combination of genes

nondisjunction error

a biological mistake during cell division when chromosomes or chromatids fail to separate and move to opposite poles of the cell

trisomy

a genetic condition where an individual has an extra copy of a specific chromosome in their cells

monosomy

a genetic condition where an individual is missing one copy of a chromosome pair

translocation error

a genetic abnormality where a segment of one chromosome breaks off and incorrectly attaches to another chromosome, or two chromosomes exchange parts

structural gene

a segment of DNA that codes for a produce, such as an enzyme, structural protein, or RNA molecule

regulatory gene

a gene that codes for a regulatory protein such as a transcription factor, which controls the expression of other genes

allele

one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome

Gregor Mendel

a scientist who discovered the fundamental principles of inheritance through experiments with pea plants

dichotomous variation

a variable or situation that can only take one of two possible values, such as “yes” or “no”

genotype

an individual’s complete set of genes, or the specific genetic information at a particular position in the genome, which determines the phenotype

phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment

Mendel’s law of segregation

during the formation of gametes, the two alleles for a trait separate from each other so that each gamete receives only one of two alleles

Mendel’s law of independent assortment

the alleles for two or more different genes sort into gametes independently of one another

dominant/recessive/codominant

a dominant allele overpowers a recessive allele, codominance is when both alleles of a gene are fully and equally expressed

linkage

the tendency for genes location close together on the same chromosome to be inherited together during sexual reproduction

assortment

alleles for different traits segregate randomly and independently of one another during the formation of gametes

recombination

a general term for processes that lead to new combinations of genetic material or particles

qualitative variation

differences in phenotypic traits that fall into distinct, separate categories and are typically controlled by one or few genes

quantitative variation

phenotypic differences in a population that vary along a continuum and can be measured numerically

heritability

the proportion of phenotypic variation in a population that is attributable to genetic variation

polygenic traits

characteristics influenced by two or more genes, rather than a single gene, and often show continuous variation in a population rather than distinct categories

epigenetics

studies how behaviors and environmental factors, such as diet and stress alter gene activity and expression without changing the DNA sequence itself

Frederick Douglass

demonstrated a far better understanding of the biocultural processes that lead the adaptation

Fixity of Species

the idea that each species is fixed in its physical form and habitat, remaining unchanged and unchanging over time

Aristotle

pioneered the scientific method based on observation and systematic analysis

Scala Naturae/The “Great Chain of Being”

Scala Naturae is a philosophical concept that orders all of life based on its complexity and perfection. The Great Chain of Being was a comprehensive view of the universe as a linear sequence

monogenism

the theory that all humans have descended from a single ancestral pair or a common origin

Bishop James Ussher

pinpointed creation at 4004 B.C.

Al-Jahiz

a philosopher who wrote “The Animals” about how animals changed according to natural selection

the scientific revolution

a period when the understanding of the world shifted from relying on religion and authority to a new emphasis on empirical evidence and the scientific method

age of exploration

a period when European explorers traveled the world to find new trade routes and partners

polygenism

a theory of human origins, which posits the view that humans are of different origins

scientific method

a systematic process of observation, asking questions, forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions to gain knowledge and solve problems

species

a classification for a group of organisms that have common characteristics and can breed with one another

John Ray

a prominent English naturalist and the “father of natural history” who established modern biological classification

Carolus Linneaus/Carl von Linne

18th century botanist, naturalist, and physician who developed the modern system of the binomial nomenclature and hierarchical system of classification

Systemae Naturae

a book written by carl linnaeus, that introduced linnaean taxonomy

binomial nomenclature

the system of nomenclature in which two terms are used to denote a species of living organism, the first one indicating the genus and the second the specific epithet

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

a French naturalist and author known for his extensive work in natural history

comparative anatomy

the study of the structural similarities and differences between different organisms to understand their evolutionary relationships and shared ancestry

Georges Cuvier

was instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work in comparing living animals with fossils