BIOL 2401 FLASHCARDS: Exam #1

Anatomy and Physiology

Human structure and function - the biology of the human body; form a foundation for advanced study in health care, exercise physiology, pathophysiology, and other related fields

Inspection

To look at a person or body part

Palpation

To feel with the fingers or hands during a physical examination

Auscultation

To listen to the internal sounds of the body, usually using a stethoscope

Percussion

To tap body parts with the fingers, hands, or other small instruments as part of a physical examination

Cadaver Dissection

Cutting and separating human body tissues to reveal tissue relationships

Comparative Anatomy

Study of multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution

Medical Imaging

Viewing the inside of the body without surgery

Radiology

Branch of medicine concerned with imaging

Gross Anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Histology

Microscopic anatomy; examination of tissues with a microscope

Histopathology

Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

Cytology

Study of structure and function of cells

Ultrastructure

Viewing details under an electron microscope

Subdisciplines of Anatomy and Physiology

Neurophysiology, endocrinology, and pathophysiology

Neurophysiology

Study of the physiology of the nervous system

Endocrinology

Study of the physiology of hormones

Pathophysiology

Study of the mechanisms of disease

Comparative Physiology

Study of different species to learn about body functions; the basis for much of our understanding of human physiology and the development of new drugs and medical procedures

Hippocrates

Greek physician known as the “father of medicine”; established a code of ethics called the Hippocratic Oath; urged physicians to seek natural causes of disease rather than attributing them to acts of the gods and demons

Aristotle

Believed diseases had supernatural or physical causes; called supernatural causes of disease *theologi* and natural causes for disease *physiologi* - this gave rise to the terms *physician* and *physiology*; believed complex structures were built from simpler parts

Claudius Galen

Physician to Roman gladiators; did animal dissections because the use of cadavers was banned at the time; saw science as a method of discovery; teachings were adopted as dogma in Europe in the Middle Ages

Maimonides

Also known as Moses ben Maimon; Jewish physician who wrote 10 influential medical texts; was physician to Egyptian sultan, Saladin

Avicenna

Also known as Ibn Sina, as well as “The Galen of Islam”; combined both Galen and Aristotle’s findings with original discoveries; wrote *The Canon of Medicine* which was used in medical schools for 500 years

Andreas Vesalius

Performed his own dissections rather than having the barber-surgeons dissect (Catholic Church relaxed restrictions on dissection of cadavers); published first atlas of anatomy, *De Humani Corporis Fabrica* (*On the Structure of the Human Body*) in 1543

William Harvey

Early physiologist - contributions represent the birth of experimental physiology; published *De Motu Cordis* (*On the Motion of the Heart*) in 1628; realized blood flows out from the heart and back to it again (some credit is also given to **Michael Servetus** for this)

Robert Hooke

Made many improvements to the compound microscope, including adding two lenses: the ocular lens (eyepiece) and objective lens (near specimen); invented the specimen stage, illuminator, and coarse and fine focus controls; his microscopes magnified only 30X; first to see and name “cells”; published the first comprehensive book of microscopy (*Micrographia*) in 1665

Antony van Leeuwenhoek

Invented a simple (single-lens) microscope with great magnification to look at fabrics (magnified 200X); published his observations of blood, lake water, sperm, bacteria from tooth scrapings, and many other things

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

Examined a wide variety of specimens; concluded that “all organisms were composed of cells” (first tenet of cell theory) - considered to be perhaps the most important breakthrough in biomedical history as all functions of the body are interpreted as effects of cellular activity

Francis Bacon (England) and René Descartes (France)

Philosophers who invented new habits of scientific thought - a creative, objective process; sought systematic ways of seeking similarities, differences, and trends in nature, as well as drawing useful generalizations from observable facts

Governments of England and France

Established academies of science that still exist today

Science and Scientific Methods

Set standards for truth

The Inductive Method (Described by Francis Bacon)

Involves making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations and predictions; knowledge of anatomy has been obtained by this method

Proof in Science

Reliable observations, repeatedly confirmed; not falsified by any credible observation

In science, all truth is tentative, or otherwise known as…

“Proof beyond a reasonable doubt”

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

Most physiological knowledge has been obtained by this method; investigator formulates a hypothesis or an educated speculation or possible answer to the question (good hypotheses are consistent with what is already known and are testable)

Falsifiability

If we claim that something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong

Sample Size

Number of subjects in a study

Controls

Resembles treatment group but does not receive treatment

Psychosomatic Effects

Effects of subject’s state of mind on his/her physiology; tested by giving a placebo to the control group

Experimenter Bias

Avoided with a double-blind study

Statistical Testing

Provides statement of probability that treatment was effective

Peer Review

Critical evaluation done by other experts in the same field; done prior to funding or publication; done by using verification and repeatability of results; ensures honesty, objectivity, and quality in science

Scientific Fact

Information that can be independently verified

Law of Nature

Generalization about the way matter and energy behave; results from inductive reasoning and repeated observations; written as a verbal statement or mathematical formula

Theory

An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses; summarizes what we know; suggests directions for further study

Charles Darwin

Wrote *On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection* (1859), the book that “shook the world”; also wrote *The Descent of Man* (1871) which elaborated on human evolution and people’s relationship to other animals

Evolution

Change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms; an example of this is the development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics

Natural Selection

How evolution works

Selection Pressures

Forces that promote the reproductive success of some individuals more than others; an examples of this is predators

Adaptations

Inherited features of anatomy and physiology that evolved in response to pressures and that enable an organism to succeed; an example of this is better camouflage

The closest known relative to humans is…

The chimpanzee (difference of only 1.6% in DNA structure)

Study of Evolutionary Relationships

Helps us to select animals for biomedical research (the animal model); rats and mice are used extensively due to cost and ethical issues involved with using chimpanzees

Primates

Order of mammals to which humans, monkeys, and apes belong

What are some of our basic primate adaptations?

Mobile shoulders, opposable thumbs, prehensile hands, forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic vision, color vision, and a large brain

Bipedalism

Standing and walking on two legs; helps animals to spot predators, as well as carry food, tools, and infants

Some adaptations necessary in order for bipedalism to occur include…

Skeletal and muscular modifications, as well as changes to family structure

*Australopithecus*

Bipedal primate genus that lived more than 3 million years ago

*Homo*

Bipedal primate genus that appeared 2.5 million years ago; they were taller, had larger brain volume, and were better at making tools

*Homo erectus*

Bipedal primate genus that appeared 1.8 million years ago; migrated from Africa to different parts of Asia

*Homo sapiens*

Bipedal primate genus that originated in Africa 200,000 years ago

Evolutionary medicine traces some of our diseases to…

Differences between modern and prehistoric environments

What is the proper order of the hierarchy of increasing complexity?

Atoms → Molecules → Organelles → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ systems → Organism

Reductionism

Large, complex systems can be understood by studying their simpler components; essential to scientific thinking

Holism

“Emergent properties” of the whole organism cannot be predicted from the properties of the separate parts; idea that humans are more than the sum of their parts

Anatomical Variation

No two humans are exactly alike - anatomy books show the most common organization of structures, however some individuals lack certain muscles, have an atypical number of vertebrae or certain organs (for example, kidneys), and some might even display *situs inversus* (left-right reversal of organ placement)

What are the different characteristics of life?

Organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution

In what areas can physiological differences exist?

Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity, genetics, and environment

What are the physiological characteristics of the “reference man”?

22 years old, weighs 154 pounds, participates in light physical activity, and consumes 2,800 calories per day

What are the physiological characteristics of the “reference woman”?

22 years old, weighs 128 pounds, participates in light physical activity, and consumes 2,000 calories per day

Failure to consider physiological variation can lead to…

Overmedication of the elderly or the medication of women on the basis of research done on men

Homeostasis

The ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

Claude Bernard (1813-1878)

Noted fairly constant internal conditions despite changing external conditions (for example, temperature)

Walter Cannon (1871-1945)

Coined the term “homeostasis”

Negative Feedback

Allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point - the body senses a change and “negates” or reverses it

Loss of homeostatic control causes…

Illness or death

Why are homeostatic feedback mechanisms also referred to as “feedback loops”?

They alter the original changes that triggered them

Receptor

Structure that senses change in the body (for example, stretch receptors above the heart that monitor blood pressure)

Integrating (Control) Center

Processes sensory information, “makes a decision”, and directs the response (for example, the cardiac center of the brain)

Effector

Cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (for example, the heart)

Self-Amplifying Cycle

Leads to greater change in the same direction; feedback loop is repeated - change produces more change

What are some examples of positive feedback loops?

Childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and the generation of nerve signals

Gradient

A difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points

Matter and energy tend to flow…

Down gradients (for example, blood flows from a place of higher pressure to a place of lower pressure)

Movement in the opposite direction is “up the gradient” and requires…

Spending metabolic energy

Chemicals flow…

Down concentration gradients

Charged particles flow…

Down electrical gradients

Heat flows…

Down thermal gradients

About 90% of our current medical terms come from…

1,200 Greek and Latin roots reflecting ancient past

The Renaissance brought progress but confusion because…

Some of the same structures were named differently in other countries and some structures were named after people (for example, eponyms)

What big event occured in 1895?

Anatomists established worldwide naming conventions - they rejected eponyms and used unique Latin names

What big event occured in 1998?

The *Terminologia Anatomica* (TA) was published, which provided Latin names and their English equivalents - it was then adopted by anatomists in over 50 countries

Radiography (X-Rays)

Discovered by William Roentgen in 1885; comprises over half of all medical imaging; penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body - dense tissue appears white; radiopaque substances can be injected or swallowed in order to fill hollow structures (for example, blood vessels, intestinal tract, etc.); digital subtraction angiography is useful for showing blockages and blood flow

Computed Tomography (CT) Scan

Formerly called a “CAT scan”; low-intensity x-rays and computer analysis; slice-type imaging; images have increased sharpness

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Superior quality to that of a CT scan; no x-ray exposure; best for soft tissue; functional MRI (fMRI) shows real time changes in the brain

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan

Assesses the metabolic state of tissues; injects radioactively labeled glucose; image color shows tissues that are using the most glucose at that moment; damaged tissues appear dark

Sonography

Second oldest and second most widely used form of medical imaging technology; high-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs; avoids harmful x-rays - good for obstetrics; images are not extremely sharp

Biochemistry

Study of the molecules that compose living organisms; carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids; useful for understanding cellular structures, basic physiology, nutrition, and health

Element

Simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties; on the periodic table, they are arranged by atomic number and are represented by either one or two-letter symbols

Atomic Number (For an Element)

Number of protons in the nucleus