ch 4 developing through the life span

developmental psychology

studies physical, cognitive, and social development through the life span

cross sectional studies

comparing people of different ages

longitudinal studies

following people across time

zygotes

the fertilized egg; enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

ex. alcohol (FAS), nicotine, marijuana

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

maturation

biological growth process that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accomodate

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information

piaget’s theory

sensorimotor, pre operational, concrete operational, formal operational

sensorimotor stage

0-2 yrs; infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

pre operational stage

2-7 yrs; child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

conservation

properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

egocentrism

child’s difficulty taking another point of view

concrete operational stage

7-11 yrs; children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

12+ yrs; people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

scaffold

Vygotsky; framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking

theory of mind

peoples ideas about their own and others mental states (feelings, perceptions, thoughts, behaviors)

stranger anxiety

a fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional tie with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation

imprinting

certain animals form strong attachments during early life

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

authoritarian

parents are coercive; impose rules and expect obedience

permissive

parents are unrestraining; few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

neglectful

parents are uninvolved; neither demanding nor responsive; careless, inattentive, don’t seek a close relationship with their children

authoritative

parents are confrontative; demanding and responsive; exert control by setting rules, encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “who am i?” that comes from our group memberships

intimacy

in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. males and females have it, but the additional hormone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, when a person usually becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

supermarche

the first ejaculation

menarche

the first menstrual period

gender roles

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women

sexual agression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. aka sexual assault or harassment

gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

androgyny

blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics

sexuality

our thoughts, feelings, and actions related to our physical attraction to another

sexual response cycle

the 4 stages of sexual responding : excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

refractory period

a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm

sexual dysfunction

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning at any point in the sexual response cycle

social scripts

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues; when its level is low, we feel hunger

set point

the point at which the “weight thermostat” may be set. when the body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight

basal metabolic rate

the body’s resting rate of energy output

obesity

a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher, which is calculated from our weight-to-height ratio

emotions

a response of the whole organism involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience resulting from one’s interpretations

James - Lange theory

our experience of emotions occurs when we become aware of our physiological response to an emotion-arousing stimulus

Cannon - Bard theory

an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion

two - factor theory

Schachter-Singer; to experience an emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

polygraph

a machine used in attempt to detect lies; measures emotion-linked changes in perspiration, heart rate, and breathing

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior hy crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request

cognitive dissonance theory

we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

norms

understood rules for accepted and expected behavior; “proper” behavior

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with group standard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

social facilitation

in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a groups prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

group think

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and it’s members. prejudice generally involves negative emotions, stereotypes beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

stereotype

a generalized belief about a group of people

just - world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

in-group bias

the tendency to favor our own group

scapegoat theory

prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other - race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

frustration - aggression principle

frustration creates anger, which can generate aggression

social scripts

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

compassionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspect of ourselves to others