Psych Unit 2 AOS 1

DOT POINT 1

DOT POINT 1

What is Social Cognition? 🧠

It’s how we make sense of people and social situations—how we think about others, understand their actions, and decide how to behave ourselves.

What is Person Perception? 👀

It’s how we form opinions about people when we meet them. We use mental shortcuts called schemas to quickly guess what someone is like—but these guesses can be wrong or based on stereotypes.

What is Halo Effect? ✨

It’s when one good thing about someone (like being attractive) makes us think they’re good at everything else too—even if we don’t have proof. For example, we might think a good-looking person is also smart or kind.

Impressions from Non-Verbal Communication effects (why they capture our attention? 🗣

• We judge people based on their body language—like facial expressions, eye contact, posture, and gestures.

• Salience means we notice things that stand out—like someone crying in class (unexpected) vs. crying at a funeral (expected).

What is Social Categorisation?🧩

It’s when we quickly group people by things like age, gender, or race. This helps us make fast decisions, but it can also lead to unfair assumptions.

What are Ingroups VS Outgroups? 👨‍👩‍👦‍👦

• Ingroups are groups we belong to and feel connected with (e.g like friends, family, or a school clubs.

• Outgroups are groups we don’t belong to and may see as different or separate from us. (e.g rival sport team)

We often treat ingroup members more positively and may be biased against outgroup members.

⚖ What are Attributions – Personal VS Situational?

It’s how we explain why people do things.

• Personal (Internal): “They did it because of who they are.” (e.g he crashed his car because he’s a bad driver)

• Situational (External): “They did it because of what’s happening around them.” (e.g he crashed his car because the roads were icy)

What are Biases Affecting Attributions?🧠

Fundamental Attribution Error: We blame someone’s personality instead of thinking about their situation. E.g., “She’s rude” instead of “Maybe she’s having a bad day.”

• Hint: This bias is about how we perceive OTHERS behavior

Actor–Observer Bias: We blame our own mistakes on the situation, but blame others on their personality. E.g., “I failed because the test was hard” vs. “He failed because he’s lazy.”

• This bias is about how we perceive OTHERS behaviour COMPARED to our own

Self-Serving Bias: We take credit for success but blame failure on others. E.g., “I got an A because I’m smart” vs. “I failed because the teacher was unfair.”

• This bias is about how we perceive OUR OWN behaviour

What is Tri-Component Model of Attitudes? ❤

Attitudes have three parts:

What are the Consistencies and Inconsistencies with Components?

Consistency: All three parts match—feel, think, and act the same way. E.g., You love school, believe it’s important, and work hard.

Inconsistency: One part doesn’t match the others. E.g., You dislike cricket, think it’s boring, but still go to a match with friends.

What are Stereotypes? 🧠

It’s when we believe something about a group of people, even if it’s not true for everyone. E.g., Thinking all scientists are men. Stereotypes can lead to stigma (negative labels) and prejudice (unfair treatment).

DOT POINT 2

DOT POINT 2

What is Cognitive Dissonance 🧠?

Cognitive dissonance is when your thoughts and actions don’t match, and it makes you feel uncomfortable. 👉 Example: You believe exercise is healthy, but you never work out—so you feel guilty or uneasy.

How do we fix it? We try to reduce that uncomfortable feeling by:

1. Changing our beliefs → “Maybe I get enough exercise just walking around.”

2. Changing our behaviour → Start exercising to match your belief.

3. Adding excuses → “I don’t exercise because I have a sore knee.”

What is Cognitive Bias?🧠

Cognitive bias is a mistake in thinking that happens automatically. It can make us see things in a way that isn’t accurate.

• It’s like your brain playing tricks on you without you knowing.

What are the 8 Types of Cognitive Bias? 🔍

• Anchoring Bias: This happens when you rely too much on the first piece of information you hear.

  Example: If a car is first priced at $50,000, then $40,000 seems like a great deal—even if it’s still expensive.

• Attentional Bias: You focus too much on one thing and ignore other important stuff.

  Example: If you're really hungry, you might only notice food ads and not pay attention to anything else.

• Confirmation Bias: You only look for information that supports what you already believe, and ignore anything that disagrees.

  Example: If you think your favourite singer is amazing, you ignore any bad reviews about them.

• Hindsight Bias: After something happens, you say “I knew that would happen!”—even if you didn’t really know. Example: After failing a test, you say “I knew I’d fail,” even though you weren’t sure before.

• Dunning-Kruger Effect: People who don’t know much about something think they know a lot.

  Example: A beginner gamer thinks they’re better than professional players.

What are Heuristics?

Heuristics are mental shortcuts—quick ways to make decisions based on past experience.

• They help us decide fast, but they’re not always right.

What are the Positive ✅ VS Negative Effects of Heuristics ❌?

• Positive: They save time and help us make fast choices. → Example: Buying your favourite snack without reading the label every time.

• Negative: They can lead to wrong decisions or stop us from thinking of better options. → Example: Always picking the same answer on a test because it worked before.

What are the 3 types of Heuristics? 🔍

Availability Heuristic You judge something based on how easily you remember examples.

• Example: After hearing about shark attacks, you think swimming is dangerous—even if it’s rare.

Representativeness Heuristic You judge someone based on how well they match a stereotype.

• Example: Thinking someone in a suit must be a lawyer.

Affect Heuristic You make decisions based on how you feel at the time.

• Example: Shopping after a bad day because it makes you feel better—even if you don’t need anything.

DOT POINT 3

DOT POINT 3

What Are Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stigma? 💭

These are ways people can treat others unfairly based on things like race, gender, religion, or appearance. They can hurt people’s feelings, confidence, and mental health.

What is Prejudice? 🚫

Prejudice means having a negative attitude toward someone just because they belong to a certain group. It’s like judging someone before you even know them.

Examples of Prejudice

• Thinking your group is better than others.

• Believing someone doesn’t belong because they’re different.

• Feeling threatened by another group gaining power.

Types of Prejudice?

• Old-fashioned prejudice: Open and obvious dislike (e.g., saying one race is better than another).

• Modern prejudice: Hidden or subtle dislike (e.g., saying a group wants more rights than they deserve).

• Explicit prejudice: You know you have it and show it.

• Implicit prejudice: You don’t realise you have it—it’s unconscious.

What is Discrimination? 🚷

Discrimination is when prejudice turns into action—treating someone unfairly because of who they are.

Examples of discrimination:

• Bullying, excluding, ignoring, or even violence.

• Not hiring someone because of their age, race, or religion.

Types of discrimination?

• Direct discrimination: Clearly unfair treatment (e.g., not hiring someone because of their gender).

• Indirect discrimination: Rules that seem fair but actually disadvantage certain groups (e.g., banning head coverings at work).

How They’re Connected?

These three ideas fit into the tri-component model of attitudes:

• Stereotype = Belief (thinking “people with pink hair are mean”)

• Prejudice = Feeling (disliking people with pink hair)

• Discrimination = Action (refusing to sit next to someone with pink hair)

How Can We Reduce Prejudice?

Intergroup Contact: Spending time with people from different groups helps break down stereotypes.

Superordinate Goals: Working together on a shared goal that neither group can achieve alone.

• Example: Two classmates who don’t get along must team up to win a science competition.

Mutual Interdependence: Groups rely on each other to succeed—this builds trust and teamwork.

Equality of Status: Both groups must be treated equally during contact. If one group is seen as “better,” it won’t work.

DOT POINT 7

DOT POINT 7

What are Social Groups, Aggregations and Culture? 👥

Social groups are people who interact, influence each other, and share a goal.

• Example: A sports team or a group working on a school project.

Aggregations are people in the same place but not really interacting.

• Example: A crowd doing a Mexican wave at a cricket match.

Culture is the way of life shared by a group—like language, traditions, food, and beliefs. It shapes how we behave and what we think is normal.

What are Status and Power? 📊

Status is how important someone’s role is in a group.

Power is the ability to influence or control others.

Types of Power:

• Reward power – Giving rewards (e.g. teacher gives good grades).

• Coercive power – Giving punishments (e.g. detention).

• Legitimate power – Power from a role (e.g. police officer).

• Referent power – Power from being liked or admired (e.g. celebrity).

• Expert power – Power from having special skills or knowledge.

• Informational power – Power from knowing something useful.

What is the Stanford Prison Experiment? 🧪

• A fake prison was set up with volunteers as guards or prisoners.

• Guards became bossy and cruel; prisoners became sad and helpless.

• The experiment showed how roles and power can change behaviour—even in normal people.

What are the Ethical Issues in the Experiment? ⚠

• The study caused stress and harm.

• Zimbardo said it followed rules, but many people still think it was unethical.

• It was stopped early because things got out of control.

What is Groupthink? 🧠

Groupthink happens when people in a group want to agree so badly that they ignore better ideas.

Signs of groupthink:

• Thinking the group can’t fail.

• Believing the group is morally right.

• Ignoring other opinions.

• Pressuring people to agree.

• Believing everyone agrees (even if they don’t).

• Blocking out info that disagrees with the group.

Example: A group of friends all agree to skip class, even though some secretly think it’s a bad idea.

What is Group Polarisation? 📈

After talking in a group, people often take more extreme views than they had before.

• Example: If you think school uniforms are annoying, after a group chat you might say they should be banned.

What is Deindividuation? 😶

This is when people in a crowd feel anonymous and act in ways they normally wouldn’t.

• Example: Yelling at a referee or joining in on vandalism during a protest.

The bigger the group, the easier it is to feel invisible—and the more likely people are to act out.

What Is Obedience? 👮‍♂

Obedience means doing what someone in authority tells you to do, like a teacher, police officer, or parent. It’s different from compliance, which is just going along with a request (even if the person isn’t in charge).

Types of Obedience:

• Constructive obedience: Following orders that lead to something good. Example: Listening to emergency workers during an accident.

• Destructive obedience: Following orders that cause harm. Example: Soldiers hurting innocent people just because they were told to.

What is Milgram’s Experiment on Obedience? 🧪

Milgram tested how far people would go in obeying authority—even if it meant hurting someone.

Key findings:

• People obeyed more when the authority figure seemed powerful.

• They obeyed less when the person being hurt was close to them.

• If others refused to obey, people were more likely to resist too.

What Is Conformity? 👥

Conformity means changing your thoughts, feelings, or actions to match others—like fitting in with a group. Example: Swearing or smoking just because your friends do it.

Conformity can be:

• Positive: Helps people get along and feel part of a group.

• Negative: Can lead to bad decisions if people don’t speak up or go along with something they don’t agree with.

What is Anti-Conformity?🚫

Anti-conformity means purposely going against what others are doing. It’s often about being rebellious, not just expressing your true self.

What is Asch’s Experiment on Conformity? 🧪

Asch showed that people will give the wrong answer in a group—even if they know it’s wrong—just to fit in.

What is Factors That Affect Conformity? 🔍

• Group size: People conform more in small groups (up to 4 people).

• Unanimity: If everyone agrees, it’s harder to disagree. But just one person speaking up can reduce conformity.

• Informational influence: We conform when we’re unsure what to do and look to others for guidance.

• Normative influence: We conform to fit in with social rules or group expectations.

• Culture: People from different cultures conform in different ways.

• Social loafing: People often try less in a group than when working alone. Example: In a tug-of-war, people pulled harder when they thought they were the only one pulling.

What Is Media? 📺

Media includes things like:

• Television

• Social media (like Instagram, TikTok)

• Video games

• Advertising (like ads on YouTube or billboards)

What are Positive Influences of Media? 👍

Media can be helpful when it:

• Shares useful information (like news or educational videos)

• Connects people (like chatting with friends online)

• Inspires creativity (like making videos or art)

• Raises awareness about important issues (like mental health or bullying)

What are Negative Influences of Media? 👎

Media can also be harmful when it:

• Shows too much violence, especially on TV or in games → This can make kids more aggressive or think violence is normal.

• Encourages unhealthy comparisons → Social media can make people feel bad about themselves by comparing their looks or lives to others.

• Leads to addictive behaviour → Spending too much time online or gaming can affect sleep, schoolwork, and friendships.

• Spreads misinformation → Not everything online is true, and fake news can confuse people.

Why It Matters? 🧠

Media affects how we think, feel, and act—both as individuals and in groups. It can shape our opinions, change our mood, and even influence how we treat others.

What Is Anti-Conformity? 🧍‍♀

Anti-conformity means choosing not to follow the crowd—on purpose.

• It’s when someone refuses to go along with what most people are doing or thinking.

• They might challenge group rules, ideas, or behaviours, even if everyone else agrees.

What is an Example? 💬

Imagine your group of friends all want to skip class. You say, “No, that’s wrong—I’m going to class.” That’s anti-conformity: standing up for your own beliefs, even when others disagree.

Why Do People Do It? 🧠

Sometimes people show anti-conformity because:

• They want to be rebellious or stubborn

• They feel strongly about their own ideas

• They don’t want to be controlled by others

It’s not always about doing the right thing—it can also be about not wanting to fit in.

How Groups Influence Us? 👥

When you're in a group, you might feel pressure to:

• Conform (go along with the group)

• Obey someone with power

• Follow the crowd even if you disagree

This can lead to:

• Losing your independence

• Feeling confused or uncomfortable (called cognitive dissonance)

• Lower self-esteem

Anti-Conformity vs. Conformity ⚖

Why It Matters? 🦸

Learning about anti-conformity helps you:

• Think for yourself

• Make better decisions in groups

• Understand when to speak up or when to go with the flow