Anatomy Quiz 2

Propioreceptors

muscle spindle fibers and golgi tendon organ: stabilizing joints and maintaining tension through muscles

Types of Touch Receptors

Free Nerve Endings - vibration and light

Meismers Corpuscles - light touch, dermal layer

Pacinian Corpuscles - deep pressure, hyperdermis

Root Hair Plexus - hair sensations

Thermoreceptors

cold and warm types → measure kinetic energy leaving/entering the body in adjustment to surroundings

Endocrine vs. Exocrine

Endo: hormones into bloodstream, no ducts

Exo: substances (sebum, sweat, enzymes, mucus) into organs/body surface ducts

Classes of Hormones

Amino Acid-Based: Protein → amines, peptides, proteins, gene expression → quick onset, short duration

Steroid: Lipids → gonadal and adrenocorticol → slow onset, long duration

Characteristics of Hormonal Secretions

• Chemical substances secreted by cells into extracellular fluid

• Regulate metabolic function of other cells in the body

Actions of Hormones

• Alter plasma membrane permeability

• Alter protein or regulatory molecule synthesis

• Activate or inactivate enzyme

• Induction of secretory activity

• Stimulate mitosis

Receptors

• Cell-Surface

  • g-protein → subunit → intracellular second messengers → activation of effectory system

  • proteins never enter cell

  • amino-acid based hormones

• Nuclear

  • traveling through plasma membrane → chaperone to nucleus → bind to receptor which is connected to gene

  • lipid based / steroid hormones

Hypothalamus

• SON → oxytocin

• PVN → ADH

• Ventralmedial Nuclei → releasing and inhibiting hormones → primary plexus → portal vein → secondary plexus → anterior pituitary

Anterior Pituitary

Tropic/Basophils:

• TSH - thyroid gland → T3+T4

• ACTH - adrenal gland → cortisol

• FSH - gametogenesis - reproductive system

• LH - gonadal hormones - reproductive system

Non-tropic/Acidophils:

• Growth Hormone - increases gluconeogenesis, breaks fatty acids down into energy, connects to IGF for skeletal and muscle growth

  • GHIH Inhibitor

  • GHRH Stimulant

• Prolactin - prevents lactation

  • PIH Inhibitor

*Within secondary plexus

Posterior Pituitary

• Oxytocin - let-down reflex and myometrial contraction during childbirth

• ADH - reduces volume of urine → increased blood pressure

Thyroid

• T3: 3 Iodine, cant travel in the bloodstream, functional

• T4: 4 Iodine, can travel in bloodstream, gets turned into T3

*controls how quickly glucose is broken down → higher energy

Adrenal

• Medulla: NE and Epi

• Cortex: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, gonadocorticoids

Types of Immunity

• Specific: knows identity of pathogen → action → memory/antibodies

• Non-Specific: doesn’t know identity of pathogen → kills non-human cells

Non-Specific Responses

• Skin + Mucous Membranes: physical, ecological, and chemical barrier

  • sebum is antibacterial

  • stomach kills everything ingested

  • immune cells live in mucous membranes

• Phagocytosis: engulfing and digesting pathogen

• Interferon: shuts down neighboring cells to stop DNA, slowing infection down

• Complement System

Phagocytic Cells

• Neutrophils - 1st at infection site, single use

• Monocytes → activation → Macrophages

• Eosinophils - parasitic worms

• Natural Killer (NK) Cells

Events of Inflammation

1. Vasodilation

• Basophils release histamine'

• Histamine vasodilates (enlarges) blood vessels

2. Chemical Signals

• Cytokines - released by surrounding cells of infection and create a chemical gradient

• Enter through the Lymphatic System and stimulate differentiation of immune cells in lymph nodes

• Chemokines lead immune cells to the infection site

3. Diapedesis

• immune cells exiting circulatory system by merging plasma membrane

Specific Immune Responses

• Specificity

• Diversity

• Self/Non-Self Recognition

• Memory

Antigen

• foreign substance eliciting a lymphocytic response

• present on surface, produced by or released by bacteria, viruses, etc

Antibody

• antigen-binding immunoglobulin produced by B cells

• effectors

Antigen Receptor

• recognize and distinguish antigens

• present on plasms membranes of lymphocytes

Types of Immune Responses

• Primary Response - first exposure to antigen

  • slower onset

  • shorter duration

  • lower magnitude

  • lymphocytes differentiate into B and T cells

  • B cells give rise to effector cells that secrete antibodies

• Secondary Response - future encounters of previous anitgen

  • faster onset (2-7 days)

  • longer duration

  • higher magnitude, more numerous antibodies

Self/Non-Self Regulation

Humoral Response

Cell-Mediated Response

Passive vs. Active Immunity

Vessels Exiting Heart

• Pulmonary Trunk → Pulmonary Arteries (Left and Right)

• Aorta → Brachiocephalic, Left Common Carotid, Left Subclavarian

Vessels Entering Heart

• Superior Vena Cava

• Inferior Vena Cava

• Pulmonary Veins

Arteries

• Right Coronary Artery → Marginal Artery → Posterior Interventricular Artery

• Circumflex → Anterior Interventricular Artery

Cardiac Veins

Drains to Coronary Sinus:

• Great Cardiac Vein

• Vein of Left Ventricle

• Middle Cardiac Vein

• Small Cardiac Vein

rains to Right Atrium

• Anterior Cardiac Vein

Valves of the Heart

• Semilunar Valve - prevent blood from pulmonary and systemic circuit returning to heart

• AV Valve - prevents backflow from ventricles to atrium

  • Cusp → Chordae Tendinae → Papillary Muscle

Circuits of the Heart

Pulmonary - Right Ventricle → Lungs → Left Atrium

Systemic - Left Ventricle → Body → Right Atrium

Myocardium

• shortens and compressed 4 chambers of the heart, like ribbons

• branched and striated

• connected by gap junctions → functional syncytium

Heart Membrane

• Fibrous - limits how much heart can stretch + tethers to surroundings

  • dense irregular connective tissue

• Parietal

• Visceral Layer

• Heart Wall: Epicardium (loose connective tissue), Myocardium (cardiac muscle), Endocardium (simple squamous)