AP Psychology - Unit 3

sensation

process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

subliminal

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd.)

Weber’s law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another; the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret

wavelength

distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next; electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses if radio transmission

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

accomodation

the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones doen’t respond

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there

fovea

central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to special features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

parallel processing; processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mofe of information processing for many functions including vision; contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

Young- Helmholtz trichromatic theory

theory that the retina contains three different color receptors (one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue) which, when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color

opponent- process theory

theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; ex. some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red (and vice versa)

audition

sense or act of hearing

frequency

number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (ex. per second)

pitch

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

middle ear

chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window

cochlea

coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

inner ear

innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

place theory

in hearing, theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

sensorineural hearing loss:hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or the auditory nerves

cochlear implant

device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

kinesthesis

system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

vestibular sense

sense of body movement and position, including balance

gate-control theory

theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain; “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

sensory interaction

principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

gestalt

psychologists who emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes (wave three)

figure-ground

organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that sound out from their surroundings (ground)

grouping

perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

depth perception

ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional; allows us to judge distance

visual cliff

laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

retinal disparity

binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance (the greater the disparity/difference between the two images, the closer the object)

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

phi phenomenon

illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consisten shape, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

perceptual adaptation

the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

perceptual set

mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

extrasensory perception (ESP)

controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

parapsychology

study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis