PSYC 2301 Health Psyc Midterm

Health psychology

Devoted to understanding psychological influences on how people stay healthy, why they become ill, and how they respond when they do get ill

Health

The World Health Organization defined ______________ as "a complete state of physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity"

1) to give worldwide guidance in the field of health

2) to set global standards for health

3) to cooperate with governments in strengthening

national health programs

4) to develop and transfer appropriate health

technology, information and standards

The WHO (World Health Organization) has 4 main functions. These are?

1) Health promotion and maintenance

2) Prevention and treatment of illness

3) Etiology and correlates of health, illness, and dysfunction

4) Impact of health professionals on people's behaviour and develop recommendations for improving health care

Health psychologists focus on?

Etiology

Refers to the origins or causes of illness

A unit; disease arose when evil spirits entered the body and that these spirits could be exorcied through through the treatment process. They employed trephination, where they drilled small holes in the person's skill, believing that the evil spirits would leave the body while the "physician", or shaman, performed the treatment ritual

In the earliest times, it was believed that the mind and body were considered what? (also list how they would deal with illness)

Humoral theory of illness; disease arises when the four circulating fluids of the body - blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm - are out of balance. The function of treatment is to restore balance among the humours. Specific personality types were believed to be associated with bodily temperaments in which one of the 4 humours predominated

The Greeks introduced what theory to the mind-body relationship in health?

Supernatural explanations of illness. Mysticism and demonology dominated concepts of disease, which were seen as God's punishment for evildoing. The Church was the guardian of medical knowledge; as a result, medical practice took on religious undertones, including religiously based but unscientific generalizations about the body and the mind-body relationship.

In the middle ages, what theory to the mind-body relationship was prevalent in health?

Decartes' mind-body dualism perspective takes hold; humoral theory is rejected and the focus shifts to mechanistic and reductionistic views of the body that focuses on organic and cellular changes. The physicians became the guardians of the body while philosophers and theologians became the caretakers of the mind. As physicians focused primarily on organic and cellular changes and pathology as a basis for their medical inferences, physical evidence became the sole basis for diagnosis and treatment of illness

During the Renaissance era, what theory of the mind-body relationship was introduced?

Conversion hysteria

According to Freud, specific unconscious conflicts can produce particular physical disturbances that symbolize the repressed psychological conflicts. The patient converts the conflict into a symptom via the voluntary nervous system; they then become relatively free of the anxiety the conflict would otherwise produce.

Psychosomatic

Disorders are believed to be ___________________ in origin when they are caused by emotional conflicts such as ulcers, hyperthyroidism, rheumatoid arthritis, essential hypertension, colitis, and bronchial asthma.

The onset of disease requires the interaction of a variety of factors; these factors include a possible genetic weakness in the organism, the presence of environmental stressors, early and current ongoing learning experiences and conflicts, and individual cognitions and coping efforts

Researchers now believe that a particular conflict or personality type is not sufficient to produce illness. Rather, the onset of disease requires what?

Behavioural medicine

_______________ developed, in part, to address this need by focusing on objective and clinically relevant interventions that would demonstrate the connections between body and mind suggested by psychosomatic medicine

Behavioural medicine

This is considered the interdisciplinary field concerned with integrating behavioural science and biomedical science for understanding physical health and illness and for developing and applying knowledge and techniques to prevent, diagnose, treat and rehabilitate

inextricably interwoven with the psychological and social environment: All conditions of health and illness, not just the diseases identified by the early psychosomatic theorists, are influenced by psychological and social factors

It is now known that physical health is what

Biopsychosocial model

This fundamental assumption of this model is that health and illness are consequences of the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors

Biomedical model

This model governed the thinking of most health practitioners for the past 300 years, maintaining that all illness can be explained on the basis of aberrant somatic processes, such as biochemical imbalances or neurophysiological abnormalities. It assumes that psychological and social processes are largely independent of the disease process.

1) Reductionistic

2) Single causal factor considered

3) Assumes mind-body dualism

4) Emphasizes illness over health

Briefly explain the biomedical model in 4 points

1) Macrolevel as well as microlevel

2) Multiple causal factors considered

3) Mind and body inseparable

4) Emphasizes both health and illness

Briefly explain the biopsychosocial model in 4 points

Systems theory

This theory maintains that all levels of organization in any entity are linked to each other hierarchically and that change in any one level will effect change in all the other levels. This means that the mircrolevel processes (such as cellular changes) are nested within the macrolevel processes (such as societal values) and that changes on the microlevel can have macrolevel effects (and vice versa)

1) The process of diagnosis should always consider the interacting role of all three factors in assessing an individual health or illness

2) Recommendations for treatment must also examine all three sets of factors

3) Makes explicit the significance of the relationship between patient and practitioner

What are the clinical implications of the biopsychosocial model

Acute disorders

Short-term medical illnesses, often the result of a viral or bacterial invader and usually amenable to cure

Chronic illnesses

Slowly developing diseases with which people live for a long time. Often cannot be cured but, rather only managed by the patient and provider working together.

1) These are diseases in which psychological and social factors are implicated as causes (personal health habits)

2) Health psychologists help people living with chronic illnesses adjust psychologically and socially to their changing health state

Why have chronic illnesses helped spawn the field of health psychology

Epidemiology

The study of the frequency, distribution, and causes of infectious and noninfectious disease in a population, based on an investigation of the physical and social environment

Morbidity

Refers to the number of cases of a disease that exist at some given point in time. This can be expressed as the number of new cases (incidence) or as the total number of exiting cases (prevalence)

Mortality

Refers to numbers of deaths due to particular causes

Income and social status, social support networks, education, employment or working conditions, social environments, physical environments, personal health practices and coping skills, healthy child development, biology and genetic endowment, health services, gender, culture

List some determinants of health:

The compensatory health beliefs model

Focuses on understanding the role of compensatory beliefs for explaining why people fail to bridge the intention-behaviour gap in the context of tempting unhealthy alternative choices

The rise of health psychology can be tied to several factors, including the increase in chronic or lifestyle-related illnesses, the changing perspective on the definition of health, the increasing burden on health care expenditures, the realization that psychological and social factors contribute to health and illness, the demonstrated importance of psychological interventions to improving peoples health, and the rigorous methodological contributions of expert researchers

Identify why the field of health psychology is needed

Nervous system

A complex network of interconnected nerve fibres that functions to regulate many important bodily functions, including the response to and recovery from stress

The central nervous system

1 of 2 systems that make up the nervous system consisting of the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

1 of 2 systems that make up the nervous system consisting of somatic fibres to voluntary muscles and provides the brain with feedback in the form of sensory information about voluntary movement and the autonomic or involuntary nervous system that connects the central nervous system with all internal organs over which people do not customarily have control

Sympathetic nervous system

Plays an important role in reaction to stress. It prepares the body to respond to emergencies; to strong emotions, such as anger or fear; and to strenuous activity. Because it is concerned with the mobilization and exertion of energy, it is called a catabolic system

Parasympathetic nervous system

Controls the activities of organs under normal circumstances and acts antagonistically to the sympathetic nervous system. This system restores the body to a normal state. Because it is concerned with the conservation of body energy, it is called an anabolic system

Hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

The brain consists of three sections. They are?

Brain

This is the command centre of the body. It receives afferent (sensory) impulses from the peripheral nerve endings and sends efferent (motor) impulses to the extremities and to internal organs to carry out necessary movement

The medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum

The hindbrain has three main parts, these are?

Medulla

This structure in the hindbrain is heavily responsible for the regulation of heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration

The pons

This structure in the hindbrain serves as a link between the hindbrain and the midbrain. It also helps control respiration

The cerebellum

This structure in the hindbrain coordinates voluntary muscle movement, the maintenance of balance and equilibrium, and the maintenance of muscle tone and posture

The midbrain

The major pathway for sensory and motor impulses moving between the forebrain and the hindbrain. It is responsible for the coordination of visual and auditory reflexes

The diencephalon, and the telecephalon

The forebrain has two main sections, these are?

The thalamus and hypothalamus

The diencephalon is composed of what?

The thalamus

This structure in the forebrain is involved in the recognition of sensory stimuli and the relay of sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex

The hypothalamus

This structure in the forebrain helps regulate the centres in the medulla that control cardiac functioning, blood pressure, and respiration. It is also responsible for regulating water balance and appetites, including hunger and sexual desire

Two hemispheres (left and right) of the cerebral cortex

The telencephalon is composed of what?

Cerebral cortex

This structure in the forebrain is the largest portion of the brain and is involved in higher order intelligence, memory, and personality. The sensory impulses that come from the peripheral areas of the body, up the spinal cord, and through the hindbrain and midbrain are received and interpreted in this structure.

Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital

The cerebral cortex consists of four lobes, these are?

Neurotransmitters

The nervous system functions by means of chemicals, called _______________, that regulate nervous system functioning

Epinephrine and norepinephrine; catceholamines

Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system prompts the secretion of large quantities of two neurotransmitters ________________, together termed the ______________. These substances enter the bloodstream and are carried throughout the body prompting the activity of sympathetic stimulation.

Heart rate increases, the heart's capillaries dilate, and blood vessels constrict, increasing blood pressure. Blood is diverted into muscle tissue. Respiration rate goes up, and the amount of air flowing into the lungs is increased. Digestion and urination are generally decreased. The pupils dilate, and sweat glands are stimulated to produce sweat

The release of catecholamines prompts a variety of important bodily changes. These are?

Epilepsy

A disease of the central nervous system marked by seizures, which range from barely noticeable staring or purposeless motor movement (such as chewing and lip smacking) to violent convulsions accompanied by irregular breathing, drooling, and loss of consciousness.

Parkinson's disease

Patients with this disease suffer from progressive degeneration of the basal ganglia, the group of nuclei that controls smooth motor coordination. The result of this deterioration is tremors, rigidity, and slowness of movement.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive and degenerative disease of the brain. This causes serious impairments to thinking and memory.

Cerebral palsy

A chronic, non-progressive disorder marked by lack of muscle control. It stems from brain damage caused by an interruption in the brain's oxygen supply, usually during childbirth. In older children, a severe accident or physical abuse can produce the condition. People with this condition may have seizures, spasms, mental handicap, difficulties of sensation and perception, and problems with sight, hearing, or speech.

Multiple sclerosis

This degenerative disease of certain brain tissues can cause paralysis and, occasionally, blindness, deafness, and mental deterioration. Early symptoms include numbness, double vision, dragging of the feet, loss of bladder or bowel control, speech difficulties, and extreme fatigue.

Huntington's disease

A hereditary disorder of the central nervous system, characterized by chronic physical and mental deterioration. Symptoms include involuntary muscle spasms, loss of motor abilities, personality changes, and other signs of mental disintegration

The endocrine system

This system mainly governs slow-acting responses of longer duration than the nervous system that it constantly depends on. This system is made up of a number of ductless glands, which secrete hormones into the blood, stimulating changes in target organs.

Hypothalamus and the pituitary gland

The endocrine system is regulated by what 2 structures in the brain?

The anterior and posterior

The pituitary gland has 2 lobes, these are?

Growth: somatrophic hromone (STH), which regulates bone, muscle, and other organ development; gonadrotrophic hormones, which regulates the growth of the gonads; thryrotrophic hormone (TSH), which controls the growth and secretions of the thyroid gland; and adrenocortico-trophic hormone (ACTH), which controls the growth and secretions of the cortex region of the adrenal glands

The anterior pituitary lobe of the pituitary gland secrets hormones responsible for what?

Oxytocin, which controls contractions during labour and lactation, and vasopressin, or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which controls the water-absorbing ability of the kidneys

The posterior pituitary lobe produces what?

Adrenal glands

Two small glands located one on top of each of the kidneys. Each gland consists of an _________ medulla and a(n) _________ cortex. The hormones of the ____________ medulla are epinephrine and nor-epinephrine

Adrenocoritcotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary, and it releases hormones called steroids including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, androgens, and estrogens

The adrenal cortex is stimulated by what?

Diabetes

A chronic encdrocrine disorder in which the body is not able to manufacture or properly use insulin

Type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes)

A severe disorder that typically arises in late childhood or early adolescence. It is partly genetic origin and is believed to an autoimmune disorder. The immune system falsely identifies cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas as invaders and destroys those cells, compromising or eliminating their ability to produce insulin

Type II diabetes

Insulin may be produced by the body in this disorder, but there may be not be enough of it, or the body may not be sensitive to it. It is heavily a disease of lifestyle, involving a disturbance in glucose metabolism and the delicate balance between insulin production and insulin responsiveness. This balance appears to be dysregulated by such factors as obesity and stress, among other contributing factors.

Coronary heart disease

Diabetes is associated with a thickening of the arteries due to the buildup of wastes in the blood. As a consequence, people with diabetes show high rates of what?

Diabetes

__________ is the leading cause of blindness among adults and it accounts for 50 percent of all the patients who require renal dialysis for kidney failure

Diabetes (type 1, type 2), osteoporosis, cushing's syndrome, menopause, obesity

Disorders of the endocrine system include?

The cardiovascular system

Composed of the heart, blood vessels, and blood, and acts as the transport system of the body

Systole and diastole

There are 2 phases, of the cardiac cycle. They are?

Blood is being pumped out of heart, and blood pressure in the blood vessels increases.

During systole, what is happening in the heart?

Muscle relaxes, blood pressure drops and blood is being taken into the heart

During diastole, what is happening in the heart?

Atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, aneurysm

Examples of disorders of the cardiovascular system are?

Atherosclerosis

Caused by deposits of cholesterol and other substances on the arterial walls, which form plaques that narrow the arteries. This reduces the flow of blood through the arteries and interferes with the passage of nutrients from the capillaries into the cells

1) Angina pectoris (chest pain that occurs because the muscle tissue of the heart must continue activity without a sufficient supply of oxygen or adequate removal of carbon dioxide and other waste products

2) Myocardinal infarction (heart attack) which is most likely to occur when a clot has developed in a coronary vessel and blocks the flow of blood to the heart

Atherosclerosis is associated with two primary clinical manifestations, these are?

Arteriosclerosis

This results when calcium, salts, and scar tissue react with the elastic tissue of the arteries. The consequence is to decrease the elasticity of the arteries, making them rigid and hard. Blood pressure then increases because the arteries cannot dilate and constrict to help blood move

An aneurysm

A bulge in a section of the wall of an artery or a vein; it is the reaction of a weak region to pressure. When the bulge ruptures, it can produce instantaneous death from internal hemorrhaging and loss of blood pressure

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, tuberculosis, asthma, asphyxia, anoxia, hyperventilation

Disorders of the respiratory system include?

The immune system

This system is the surveillance system of the body. The primary function of this system is to distinguish between what is "self" and what is foreign and then to attack and rid the body of foreign invaders. It can also interact with psychological and neuroendocrine processes to affect health.

Genetic defects, hormone imbalances, nutritional deficiencies, and infection

Disease can be caused by a variety of factors, including what?

1) direct

2) indirect

3) biological

4) mechanical

The microbes that cause infection can be transmitted to people in four ways, these are?

Involves bodily contact such as handshaking, kissing, and sexual intercourse (genital herpes and HPV)

Direct transmission involves?

Occurs when microbes are passed to an individual via airborne particles, dust, water, soil or food (influenza)

Indirect transmission occurs when?

Occurs when a transmitting agent, such as a mosquito, picks up microbes, changes them into a form conducive to growth in the human body, and passes on the disease to the human (yellow fever)

Biological transmission occurs when?

Passage of a microbe to an individual by means of a carrier that is not directly involved in the disease process. Transmission of an infection by dirty hands, bad water, rats, mice, or flies are methods of mechanical transmission (hepatitis, H1N1)

Mechanical transmission is the?

Immunity

The body's resistance to injury from invading organism

Natural immunity

Involved in deference against a variety of pathogens. Cells involved do not provide defense against a particular pathogen, but rather against many pathogens

Artificial or acquired immunity

This immunity is acquired through vaccinations and inoculations

Humoral and cell mediated

There are two basic immunologic reactions, they are?

Humoral immunity

This immunity is mediated by B lymphoctyes. The functions of B lymphocytes include providing protection against bacteria, neutralizing toxins produced by bacteria, and preventing viral reinfection

Cell-mediated immunity

This immunity involves T lymphocytes from the thymus gland, is a slower-acting response. This operates at the cellular level. When stimulated by the appropriate antigen, T cells secrete chemicals that kill invading organisms and infected cells.

Cytotoxic T (TC cells) and helper T (TH cells)

There are two major types of lymphocytes:

Specific antigens and kill by producing toxic substances that destroy virally infected cells

TC cells respond to what?

TC cells, B cells, and macrophages by producing cytokines. TH cells also serve a counter-regulatory immune function, producing cytokines that suppress certain immune activities

TH cells enhance the functioning of what?

The process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health

The World Health Organization defined health promotion as?