Cultural and Social Transformations in Early Modern Empires

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement against the Catholic Church that led to the Protestant branch of Christianity.

Catholic Counter Reformation

A response to the Protestant Reformation, where the Catholic Church sought to reform and oppose Protestantism.

Indulgence

A remission granted by the Catholic Church to reduce punishment for sins.

Justification by Faith

Christian doctrine that God declares people righteous by faith, despite being sinful.

Geocentrism

The belief that Earth is the center of the universe, with all other celestial bodies revolving around it.

Heliocentrism

The theory that the Sun is the center of the solar system, with Earth and the other planets revolving around it.

Scientific Method

A systematic method of observation, experimentation, and analysis used to draw conclusions.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement during the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authorities.

Sikhism

A monotheistic religion that emerged in Punjab, combining elements of Hinduism and Islam.

Counter-Reformation

Reinforced Catholic doctrines and created new religious orders like the Jesuits to spread Catholicism and combat Protestantism.

Protestantism

The branch of Christianity that emerged from the Protestant Reformation, characterized by the rejection of papal authority.

Cultural Interaction

The process through which different cultures influence each other, leading to changes in beliefs and practices.

Missionary Efforts in China

Missionaries faced challenges in spreading Christianity due to China's strong cultural and political systems.

Wahhabi Movement

A movement in Arabia that led to stricter interpretations of Islam and granted women more rights regarding marriage.

Sufis

Islamic mystics who played a significant role in the spread of Islam through their teachings and practices.

Bhakti Movement

A movement in India that encouraged personal devotion to God, transcending caste divisions.

Scientific Revolution

A period of significant scientific advancement that changed the way Europeans viewed the universe.

Mixed Religious Allegiance

Regions like Ireland, France, and Germany that exhibited a blend of Catholic and Protestant beliefs.

95 Theses

A document published by Martin Luther in 1517 criticizing the Catholic Church and marking the start of the Protestant Reformation.

Cultural Change in Southeast Asia

Islam adapted by integrating local practices while maintaining core beliefs in the oneness of God and the Qur'an.

Impact of the Scientific Revolution

Shifted the European perspective from a geocentric to a heliocentric model and promoted empirical science.

Adaptations of Christianity

Christianity was adapted in regions like the Americas and Asia due to cross-cultural interactions.

Internal Tensions in Catholic Church

The Protestant Reformation arose from conflicts within the Catholic Church itself.

Role of the Pope

In Catholicism, the Pope is considered the central authority, unlike in Protestantism where authority is based on the Bible.

Cultural Shift in India

The emergence of Sikhism represented a blend of Islamic and Hindu beliefs during the early modern period.

European Imperial Expansion

The expansion was closely tied to the spread of Christianity as missionaries accompanied explorers.

Religious Fragmentation

The Protestant Reformation led to a division in Christianity and a decline in the political power of the Catholic Church.

Wahabi Movement

An Islamic reform movement aiming to purify Islam by returning to what its followers considered the original teachings and practices.

Bhakti

A movement in India focusing on personal devotion to a deity, transcending caste distinctions.

Din-I-Ilahi

A syncretic religion founded by Mughal Emperor Akbar, blending elements of Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity.

Columbian Exchange

The transfer of goods, culture, diseases, and people between the Americas, West Africa, and Europe following Columbus's voyages.

Middle Passage

The brutal sea voyage that transported enslaved Africans to the Americas.

Mercantilism

An economic theory where nations seek to accumulate wealth through trade, aiming to export more than they import.

Little Ice Age

A period of cooler global temperatures that caused disruptions in agriculture and led to famines.

Great Dying

The mass death of Native Americans from diseases introduced by Europeans, particularly smallpox and measles.

Encomienda

A Spanish labor system that granted colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from Native Americans.

Creole

A person of European descent born in the Americas.

Peninsular

A Spaniard born in Spain who lived in the colonies.

Mestizo

A person of mixed European and Native American ancestry.

Mulatto

A person of mixed African and European ancestry.

Viceroy

A royal official who governs a colony on behalf of the monarch.

Council of the Indies

A body of Spanish officials that advised the king on the administration of the Spanish colonies.

Consulado

A merchant guild or trading company in Spanish colonies.

Hacienda

A large estate or plantation in Spanish America.

Cossack

A member of a group of Slavic people in Eastern Europe, often associated with military service and autonomy.

Mita system

A system of labor in which indigenous people were required to work on public projects for a limited period, later adapted for use in mining.

Atlantic Slave Trade

The transatlantic trade of enslaved Africans to the Americas, primarily for labor on plantations.

Inca Empire

A powerful empire in South America, known for its extensive road systems, centralized government, and impressive engineering feats.

The Great Dying

The massive loss of life among Native Americans, largely due to the introduction of European diseases like smallpox and measles.

Mita System

A system of labor used in the Inca Empire, later adapted by the Spanish to force indigenous people to work in mines and on public projects.