AP Psychology EBQ Terms

Hippocampus

A region of the brain associated with forming, storing, and recalling memories, as well as spatial memories and emotional processing

Hypothalamus

A region of the brain that regulates physiological functions (body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, hunger, thirst)

Thalamus

A region of the brain that acts as a “relay” station for sensory information, also processes emotions and cognition

Amygdala

A region of the brain that mainly processes emotions — specifically fear and anxiety like the flight-or-fight response— and also helps form emotional memories

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signal between nerve cells and other cells

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter that regulates pleasure, reward, and motivation

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that affects mood, sleep, and appetite

Endorphins

Neurotransmitter that helps naturally relieve pain and elevates mood

Neurons

Fundamental functional units of the nervous system that transmits information throughout the body using electrical and chemical signals

Central nervous system

Primary processing center for the body, only composed of the brain and spinal cord

Sympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system that stimulates the body’s flight-or-fight response by increasing heart rate and blood pressure

Parasympathetic nervous system

Part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body instead of arousing it

Plasticity

The brain’s ability to adapt its structure and function throughout life (environment and experience)

fMRI

A neuroimaging technique that measures blood flow and oxygen levels in the brain to assess brain activity

EEG

A neuroimaging technique that measures brain waves to assess brain electrical activity

Frontal lobe

A region of the brain that controls executive functions, personality, behavior, and motor control (movement and speech)

Parietal lobe

A region of the brain that processes sensory information from the body (touch, pain, and temperature)

Temporal lobe

A region of the brain that processes auditory information, memory, and emotions

Occipital lobe

A region of the brain that transmits visual information from the eyes to the brain

nREM

First three stages of sleep

REM

Final sleep stage that is characterized by rapid eye movements, paralysis of muscles, and dreaming

Circadian rhythm

The natural and internal process of the human body (internal clock) that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and other bodily functions on a 24-hour basis

Transduction

The process of converting sensory stimuli into electrical signals that the nervous system can interpret

Twin studies

Studies that research the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human behavior and traits

Long-term potentiation

Persistent increase in the strength of synapses between neurons to help neurons communicate (a form of synaptic plasticity)

Encoding

The process of converting sensory information into a form that can be stored and retrieved in memory (first step in memory formation)

Encoding failure

The brain’s inability to create a memory link and properly store information causing issues on later recalling or retrieving memories

Chunking

The memory technique where information is clumped into smaller groups to improve recall and comprehension

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness

Recall

The process of retrieving information from memory without external cues

Recognition

The process of identifying and confirming that a previously encountered stimulus is familiar

Retrieval failure

The inability to access information that is stored in long-term memory, when information is available but not accessible

Perception

The sensory experience of the world, how one recognizes and interprets sensory information (vision, touch, sound, smell, and taste)

Top-down processing

The cognitive process where prior knowledge, expectations, and context influence how one interprets sensory information

Bottom-up processing

The perceptual process where information is analyzed from sensory data upwards to lead to a more complex understanding

Schema

Mental framework of knowledge that helps individuals organize and interpret information based on their prior experiences

Heuristics

Mental shortcut that people use to simplify decision-making or problem-solving, often without a lot of conscious thought

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut to estimate the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of that event come to mind

Divergent thinking

The process of finding multiple possibilities and solutions to a problem or question to focus on creativity (ex. brainstorming)

Anchoring bias

A cognitive bias that over-relies on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions

Confirmation bias

A cognitive bias where one favors information that confirms their existing beliefs

Hindsight bias

A cognitive bias where one believes that they predicted an event to occur AFTER it occurred, even if they didn’t

Self-serving bias

A cognitive bias where one attributes their successes to internal factors, and their failures to external factors

Meta-cognition

The awareness and understanding of one’s own thinking process

IQ

A number used to express the relative intelligence of a person

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressively degenerative brain disorder that impacts memory, language, and reasoning

Nature-Nurture

A debate in psychology that explores the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human development and behavior

Teratogens

Substances that can cause structural or functional abnormalities in a fetus, can lead to birth defects

Cross-sectional study

A study that examines different groups of people at a single point in time to compare their characteristics or behaviors related to a specific interest

Longitudinal study

An observational study that involves tracking the same individuals or groups over an extended period to study how variables change or stay the same over time

Sensorimotor stage

The first stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, infants learn through sensory experiences and understand object permanence (objects exist even when out of sight)

Preoperational stage

A stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development when children develop symbolic thinking and develop egocentrism

Concrete operational stage

A stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development when children develop the ability to think logically about concrete objects and events and understand conservation

Formal operational stage

A stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development when adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly

Language development

The ability to understand and produce language with vocabulary, grammar, and communication skills

Classical conditioning

Type of learning where a neutral stimulus is associated with a stimulus that triggers an unconditioned response — then leading the neutral stimulus to elicit the same response

Operant conditioning

A type of learning where voluntary behaviors are shaped by their consequences (reinforcements and punishments)

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that does not elicit a specific response

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that naturally triggers a specific response without prior learning or conditioning

Conditioned stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, elicits a conditioned response

Unconditioned response

An involuntary and naturally occurring reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

A learned behavior that occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus

Positive reinforcement

Presenting a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behavior to increase the likelihood of the behavior repeating

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of the behavior repeating

Positive punishment

Presenting an undesirable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of the behavior repeating

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of the behavior repeating

Authoritative parenting

Parenting style that balances high expectations with warmth and responsiveness, having clear rules and consistent discipline but with open communication

Authoritarian parenting

Parenting style that has high demands and low responsiveness, having strict rules and expected obedience with almost little communication

Permissive parenting

Parenting style that has low demands and high responsiveness with warmth, but has almost no rules or guidance

Neglectful parenting

Parenting style that has low demands and low responsiveness with no supervision and support

Temperament

An individual’s inherent emotional and behavioral style

Observational learning

When people learn from others by observing their behavior

Reciprocal determinism

When people’s behaviors continuously influence other people’s behaviors

Internal locus of control

The belief that one’s own actions and decisions influence the outcomes of their decisions and life

External locus of control

The belief that external factors or the environment influence the outcomes of their life events

Social loafing

The phenomenon where people exert less effort in a group setting than they would when working alone

Attribution theory

Theory that shows how people interpret the causes of behaviors and events through internal or external factors

Fundamental attribution error

Cognitive bias where people overestimate the role of personality and underestimate the influence of the external situation when interpreting others’ behaviors

Self-serving bias

Cognitive bias where individuals attribute their successes to internal factors (own efforts or abilities) and failures to external factors (external situations or bad luck)

Stereotypes

A oversimplified or overgeneralized belief about a group of people

Prejudice

A negative attitude or belief towards a group, based on stereotypes and generalizations

Discrimination

A negative behavior towards a group, based on prejudice

Conformity

The tendency for individuals to adjust their beliefs, attitudes, or behavior to those within a group or social norm

In-group bias

The tendency to favor people within the same group as oneself compared to individuals outside the group

Out-group

A group which an individual does not belong or identify with

Social trap

A situation where individuals or groups pursue immediate, personal gains that ultimately lead to negative, long-term consequences for everyone

Arousal

State of being physiologically alert or attentive

Self-efficacy

An individual’s belief in their ability to be successful in actions that are needed to achieve a specific goal

Self-actualization

The process of realizing one’s full potential while achieving personal growth

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Motivational theory that states human behavior is driven by a series of needs — physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization

Approach-approach conflict

When an individual must choose between two desirable options

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

When an individual must choose between two undesirable options

Approach-avoidance conflict

When an individual must choose between two choices that have both appealing and unappealing aspects

Positive psychology

Branch of psychology the focuses on the study of human strengths, well-being, and the factors that contribute to a fulfilling and meaningful life

Eustress

Positive stress that can promote growth, well-being, and motivation (excitement, anticipation, challenge)

Distress

Negative stress that can overwhelm an individual and affect daily life

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Three-stage model that describes the body’s response to stress, (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion)

Stigma

A negative and unfair social attitude towards a specific individual or group based on their certain characteristics

3 Ds (dysfunction, distress, deviance)

Factors that define and understand abnormal behavior that occur in daily life and can indicate a mental health condition

Psychodynamic perspective

Perspective that emphasizes the influence of unconscious mental processes (like childhood experiences) in shaping one’s personality and behavior