Congress Midterm

Signs of dysfunction in Congress

fewer bills being passed, huge societal problems, government shutdowns, scandals, broken promises, etc

Design of Articles of Confederation

• Each state got one vote

• 13 colonies each sent one person to cast the vote

• one collective vote per state

• no national executive or judiciary

• amendments required approval by all 13 state delegation

Weaknesses of Articles

Congress had no power to:

• collect taxes

• raise tariffs

• enforce national laws

• regulate commerce

• institute a national currency

• raise an army

Delegate Model of Representation

“Just do what we want you to do.”

Follow the will of your constituents strictly

Trustee model of Representation

use your own judgment and the people will trust you’re making good decisions

more work because you need to justify WHY you think/do what you do

Prospective/promissory representation

future oriented

vote based on what you think your rep will do

usually minority party

Retrospective Representation

based on past performance

good record and evidence of success

Descriptive Representation

demographics are better represented when reps share identity traits

interests of underserved communities

Substantive Representation

elected people can represent interest of groups that they don’t share identities with

Dyadic Representation

represent interests of a particular local community

prioritize district and state over national and party ideologies

Collective/surrogate Representation

represent nation, ideology, race, and party

voters may adopt a representative based on a shared ideology, party, etc

Concerns with lack of descriptive representation in Congress

the makeup of Congress is NOT an accurate representation of our population

lack of women, minorities, etc

enumerated powers

the specific, explicitly listed authorities granted to the federal government, primarily Congress, by the U.S. Constitution

necessary and proper clause

grants Congress the authority to pass all laws necessary and proper executing its enumerated powers

Commerce Clause

empowers Congress to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among the several states, and with Native American tribes

Origination Clause

mandates that all bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives, though the Senate may propose amendments

“Power of the Purse”

the constitutional authority of the U.S. Congress, specifically the House of Representatives, to control government spending, taxation, and authorization of funds

House of Representatives

“majoritarian” institution

218 votes to pass bills

435 members

be at least 25 yrs old

each state sends # based on their population

Senate

100 members - each state sends 2

6 year terms

be at least 30 yrs old

ratify treaties, conduct impeachment trials, provide advice and consent on presidential and executive branch nominations

slower/more thoughtful

needs supermajority

senate generalists

broader set of issues

more constituents

longer terms

serve on more committees and subcommittees

more staff and resources

house specialists

A narrow set of issues they address

shorter terms

less committees

apportionment

the constitutional process of dividing the 435 seats in the House of Representatives among the 50 states based on the decennial census population data

institutionalization

now things are much different than they were

more complex and professional Congress

advice and consent

power granted to the Senate under Article 2, section 2 of the Constitution to approve or reject presidential nominations (judges, cabinet members, ambassadors) and treaties

Speaker of the House

presiding officer of the House of Representatives

acting as the leader of the majority party

Administrative head of the chamber and second in line to the presidency

elected by the House and controls the legislative agenda, rules on procedure, and shapes policy

Senate Pro Tempore

2nd-highest ranking official in the Senate; elected to preside in the Vice President’s absence

usually the longest serving senator from the majority party

preside over sessions, sign legislation, and are third in line of the presidential succession

Majority Leader

The elected spokesperson and leader of the political party holding the most seats in either legislative chamber

they manage the legislative agenda, schedule business on the floor, and work to advance their party’s goals

Minority Leader

the elected head of the political party with the second-highest number of seats in either legislative body

serve as the party’s chief spokesperson, direct legislative strategy, manage floor activity, and work to promote their party’s agenda while opposing the majority

Majority Whip

member of the majority party in either legislative body elected to ensure party discipline, count votes, and secure support for the party’s legislative agenda

they act as a two-way bridge between party leadership and members, aiming to keep the party united on key votes

Minority Whip

a high-ranking legislative official elected by the minority party to manage party discipline, count votes, and ensure members are present for key votes

acting as a “whipper-in” or assistant leader, they bridge the gap between party leadership and members to align voting on legislation

Committee Chairs

appointed or elected leader responsible for directing a committee’s operations, setting agendas, and presiding over meetings

they guide discussions, manage member behaviors, and ensure goals are met

in legislative bodies they hold significant power to shape, advance, or block legislation

Ranking members

the highest-ranking member of the minority party on a congressional committee responsible for leading that party’s committee members

they are crucial for legislative oversight, with position typically based on seniority within the committee

Goals of members of Congress

making good public policy, achieving influence, getting reelected

members of Congress are single-minded seekers of re-election that engage in advertising, credit claiming, and position taking

geographic constituents

part of the district or state they represent

re-election constituents

supporters/people who vote for them

primary constituents

strongest political supporter/”die-hards”

Personal constituents

closest people to them, family, friends, people they trust

“One of us”

we want legislators to understand the area and the people they represent, family history in the district, personal connections, roots, common characteristics to the area, etc

homestyle

how members view their constituents, how House members interact with constituents in their districts to build trust and gain reelection

Presentation of self

how members of Congress attempt to shape the way they are viewed by their constituents, building a branch or public persona

subconstituencies

refers to the different layers or groups of voters within a congressional district that a member of Congress identifies and targets rather than the entire population of their district

district office

office located in the boundaries of the legislators district

casework

assisting constituents when they encounter a problem with a national department or agency

ranked choice voting

rank candidates in order or preference

pivotal voters

those whose vote often determines the outcome of the vote, being in this position give them leverage to push for concession their constituents may want

desire for compromise

votes often have contradictory expectations to their representatives

often gets framed as selling out/abandoning principles but we want it to work like: others giving up ground while we make no meaningful concessions

district advocate

under the radar legislators who focus on district casework and development of a localized reputation

not necessarily legislatively active but cross party lines often when they are

party soldiers

backbencher, junior members who tow the party line

very little policy specialization or indication of upward party mobility

ambitious entreprenuer

frequent public visibility to build a personal individual branch; often buck the party on key issues, usually aiming for higher office

party builder

party loyalists, important to the party fundraising

lots of partisan legislative work

policy specialist

policy work with focused agendas on particular issue areas; leverage on committee work to accomplish legislative goals; frequently cross party lines and operate behind scenes

historical trends/demographics of Congress

Congress has gradually become more diverse, but still tends to be wealthier, more educated, and less racially diverse than the U.S. population

motives to run for Congress

reasons people decide whether to run for office, including political ambition, policy goals, party support, timing, opportunity, likelihood of winning, and personal or financial costs

open primary

voters can choose which party primary to vote in

closed primary

only registered party members can vote

semi-closed/open primary

limited participation rules (must be registered to a party)

top-two primary

all candidates run together and the top two advance to the general election

reapportionment

the process of redistributing seats in the House of Representatives among states based on population changes after the U.S. census (every 10 yrs)

redistricting

the process of drawing new congressional district boundaries within a state after reapportionment

gerrymandering

manipulating district boundaries to give an advantage to a particular party or group

majority-minority districts

congressional districts where a racial/ethnic minority group makes up the majority of the population, often created to help minority groups elect representatives of their choice

trends in voter turnout

Turnout tends to be higher in presidential elections than in midterm elections and varies by age, income, education, and race

State voting laws

control voter registration systems, voter ID requirements, early voting, vote-by-mail policies, and how districts are drawn

fundraising for campaigns

the process candidates use to collect money to support their election campaigns, including donation from individuals, PACs, parties, and outside groups

Buckley v Valeo (1976)

rules spending money on campaigns is a form of political speech protected by the First Amendment, striking down limits on independent spending but allowing limits on direct contributions to candidates

McCain-Feingold Act (BCRA)

a 2002 campaign finance law that banned “soft money” donations to political parties and regulated election advertising close to elections

Citizens United v FEC (2010)

a Supreme Court decision that allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited money on independent political advertising, leading to the rise of Super PACs

outside spending

political spending by groups that are not directly connected to a candidate’s campaign such as Super PACs, nonprofits, and interest groups

dark money

political spending by organizations that are not required to disclose their donors, making the source of the money unknown

campaigning in a primary vs a general election

candidates in primaries often appeal more to their party’s base voters, while in general elections they usually broaden their message to attract a wider group of voters

incumbent advantage

the benefits current officeholders have when running for reelection, such as name recognition, fundraising ability, media coverage, and established political networks

franking

the privilege that allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents without paying postage, often used to communicate achievements and build support

499s

short fundraising events hosted by members of Congress where they can spend about 30-60 mins making fundraising calls, typically raising around 499,000 for their campaign or party

purposes of parties in Congress

they organize members of Congress, coordinate legislative goals, control the agenda, help pass party priorities, and provide leadership and structure within the legislative process

responsible party model

a theory that political parties should present clear policy platforms, voters should choose between them, and the winning party should implement its agenda and be held accountable by voters in the next election

partisan/ideological sorting

the process by which democrats and republicans have become more ideologically consistent within their own parties, with liberals mostly joining the Democratic Party and conservatives mostly joining the Republican Party

polarization

the growing ideological distance between the democratic and republican parties, resulting in fewer moderates and more conflict between parties in Congress

collective action problem

a situation where individuals have incentives to pursue their own interests rather than cooperate for the benefits of the group, making coordinated action difficult without leadership or organization

responsibilities of the majority party in the legislative chamber

the majority party controls the chamber’s agenda, leadership positions, committee chairs, legislative priorities, and scheduling of bills and debates

conditional party government

a theory stating that party leaders gain more power when members of their party are ideologically unified and strongly divided from the opposing party

party cartel theory

a theory that the majority party acts like a cartel by controlling the legislative agenda and blocking bills that would divide the party or help the minority party

positive agenda control

the power to decide which bills are allowed to come to the floor for debate and voting

negative agenda control

the power to block or prevent certain bills from reaching the floor, especially those that could divide the majority party

different motives and actions of majority vs minority parties

the majority party focuses on passing legislation and governing, while the minority party often focuses on opposing, criticizing, and positioning itself to win future elections

formal powers of party leaders

official authorities granted by chamber rules, such as scheduling votes, appointing committee members, managing floor debate, and controlling legislative procedures

informal powers of party leaders

influence based on persuasion, reputation, relationships, fundraising help, and ability to reward or punish members

why/when parties change or evolve (party systems)

party systems change when major political issues, voter coalitions, or historical events reshape political alignments, leading to new party priorities and voter bases

insecure majorities

situations where the majority party holds only a small margin of seats, making it harder to maintain party unity and pass legislation without losing votes

Standing Committees

permanent committees in Congress that handle legislation and oversight in specific policy ares (ex: agriculture, defense, finance)

Select Committees

Temporary committees created to investigate or focus on a specific issue; they usually do not have legislative authority

Ad Hoc Committees

Temporary committees formed for a specific purpose or task and dissolved after completing their work

Joint Committees

Committees that include members from both the House and the Senate and typically focus on research or oversight rather than writing legislation

Conference Committees

Temporary committees made up of members from both chambers that resolve differences between House and Senate versions of the same bill

earmarks

Provisions in legislation that direct funds to specific projects, organizations, or locations, often benefiting a member of Congress’s district or state

jurisdiction

The policy area or subject matter over which a committee has authority to consider legislation and conduct oversight

legislative authority

The power of a committee to draft, amend, and approve legislation before sending it to the full chamber for consideration

hearings

meetings where committees gather information and hear testimony from experts, officials, or the public

markups

meetings where committee members debate, amend, and revise legislation before voting on whether to send it to the full chamber

multiple referral

When a bill is sent to more than one committee because it covers issues that fall under multiple jurisdictions

seniority

A system where members with the longest continuous service on a committee receive advantages such as leadership positions or greater influence