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Bioenergetics
The field of Biology that concerns energy flow through living systems, including the study of enzymatic processes, metabolic pathways, cellular respiration, and photosynthesis.
Highly complex organization of living systems
The study of intricate organization in living systems involves various levels of organization, from molecules to ecosystems.
Metabolism
The sum of all the chemical reactions occurring in an organism, including catabolic reactions (breaking down molecules) and anabolic reactions (building polymers).
Catabolism/Catabolic
Chemical reactions that break down molecules, often releasing potential energy found in chemical bonds.
Anabolism/Anabolic
Reactions that combine monomers to build polymers, usually requiring an input of kinetic energy.
Energy
The ability to do work or make things move, including kinetic energy (energy of movement), potential energy (energy in its stored form), and thermal energy (form of kinetic energy associated with heat).
Metabolic pathways
Enzyme-regulated sets of biochemical reactions that lead to either biosynthesis (anabolic pathways) or breakdown (catabolic pathways).
Thermodynamics
The study of heat energy and its properties, including the First Law of Thermodynamics (energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed and transferred) and the Second Law of Thermodynamics (every energy transfer increases the entropy of the universe).
Entropy
A measure of the disorder or randomness in a system. It quantifies the amount of information or uncertainty in a set of data. Higher entropy indicates greater randomness, while lower entropy suggests more order or predictability. It is commonly used in information theory and thermodynamics.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, the main energy currency of cells, is composed of a nucleotide with a chain of three phosphates. Its hydrolysis releases energy used to power cellular reactions.
Coupling
The process of using energetically favorable reactions (like ATP hydrolysis) to power energetically unfavorable reactions.
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group from ATP to a molecule or protein and is often used in reaction coupling to transfer energy and drive reactions forward. Can be used to activate proteins within a transduction pathway in cell signaling.
Protein phosphorylation
The major molecular mechanism through which protein function is regulated in response to extracellular stimuli both inside and outside the nervous system.
Protein kinases
Enzymes responsible for carrying out protein phosphorylation in a cell. Aka adding a phosphate from ATP to a protein.
Enzymes
Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions and increase the rate of biological reactions by lowering the activation energy required for a reaction to occur.
Substrate
The substance acted upon by an enzyme, which binds to the enzyme's active site.
Active site
The area of an enzyme where the substrate binds, and the shape and charges of the substrate and active site must be compatible for catalysis to occur. VERY specific
Denaturation
A change in shape and loss of function of an enzyme due to changes in temperature and/or pH, which disrupt the hydrogen bonds that support the enzyme's structure.
pH
A measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, with lower pH values indicating higher hydrogen ion concentrations and higher pH values indicating lower hydrogen ion concentrations.
Enzyme activity
The rate of reaction catalyzed by an enzyme, which can be affected by factors such as concentration of enzymes and substrates, temperature, pH, and salinity.
Inhibitors
Substances that can attach to and inhibit the action of a particular enzyme. Can be allosteric or active.
Competitive inhibitors
Molecules that compete for the active site of an enzyme, slowing down the reaction rate by preventing normal substrate binding. Can be in both allosteric and active sites. Only has to prevent another molecule from binding to the active site.
Non-competitive inhibitors
Molecules that attach either near or far from the active site, allowing for the molecule to still bind, but not be transformed in the active site. Prevents the proper function of the enzyme, but does not prevent the proper binding of the substrate to the enzyme.
Feedback inhibition
Temporary deactivation of an enzyme or metabolic pathway is caused by an elevation of an end product of the pathway, which binds to an inhibiting site or feedback site on one of the early enzymes in the pathway.
Allosteric activators
Molecules or ions that help enhance an enzyme's ability to work.
Redox reactions
Reactions during cellular respiration where glucose (or other organic molecules) is oxidized, and electrons and energy are removed from a molecule/atom (oxidation) and added to another molecule/atom (reduction).
Oxidizing agent
The atom/molecule that takes electrons away from another atom/molecule during redox reactions.
Reducing agent
The atom/molecule that donates electrons to another atom/molecule during redox reactions.
Krebs Cycle
The stage of aerobic cellular respiration where the pyruvate molecules produced during glycolysis are oxidized, and energy and electrons are used to reduce electron carriers to form NADH and FADH2.
Electron Transport Chain
The stage of aerobic cellular respiration where the electron carriers NADH and FADH2 are oxidized, and the energy from these electrons is used to create large amounts of ATP.
Glycolysis
The process in which glucose is broken down into two molecules of G3P, which are then further oxidized to form three pyruvates.
Energy Investment Phase
The phase of glycolysis where two ATP molecules are used to phosphorylate glucose, making it unstable and allowing it to be broken down into G3P.
Phosphofructokinase
An enzyme involved in glycolysis that carries out the second phosphorylation step and is regulated by ATP binding to its allosteric site.
Energy Payoff Phase
The phase of glycolysis where the two G3P molecules are oxidized, producing NADH and ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
NADH
A molecule formed during glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle from NAD+ carries electrons and energy to the electron transport chain.
Pyruvate Conversion
The process in which pyruvate is transported to the mitochondrion and converted to acetyl CoA, producing NADH and releasing carbon dioxide.
Krebs Cycle
A cycle that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria (or cytoplasm of prokaryotes) where acetyl CoA is oxidized, producing NADH, FADH2, and ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Electron Transport Chain
A series of proteins located on the inner mitochondrial membrane (or cell membrane in prokaryotes) transfer electrons from NADH and FADH2, creating a proton gradient and generating ATP through chemiosmosis. Also found in the thylakoid membrane of plant cells.
Chemiosmosis
The process in which the movement of protons from a proton gradient through ATP synthase generates ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The collective term for the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis, where the energy from electron carriers is used to create a proton gradient, which is then used to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP.
Energy coupling
The concept of using the energy from one process to drive another process.
Decoupling
The separation of oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport, resulting in the generation of heat.
Anaerobic cellular respiration
Anaerobic cellular respiration is the process of producing energy from glucose without using oxygen. It includes glycolysis and fermentation to generate ATP.
Glycolysis
The process in which glucose is used to produce ATP, pyruvate, and NADH.
Fermentation
The process that regenerates NAD+ from NADH in the absence of oxygen, allowing glycolysis to continue.
Alcoholic fermentation
The process in which pyruvate is used to oxidize NADH and convert it back to NAD+, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as byproducts.
Lactic acid fermentation
The process in which pyruvate is used to oxidize NADH and convert it back to NAD+, producing lactic acid as a byproduct.
Autotrophs
Organisms that can produce their own food, typically through photosynthesis.
Heterotrophs
Organisms that consume other organisms for energy and nutrients.
Chlorophyll
A green pigment found in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.
Photosystems
Complex arrangements of chlorophyll and other pigments that capture light energy and transfer it to the reaction center.
Absorption spectrum
The range of wavelengths of light that a pigment can absorb.
Reflection spectrum
The range of wavelengths of light that a pigment reflects.
Carotenoids
Yellow, orange, and red pigments that act as accessory pigments in photosynthesis.
Electron transport chain
The pathway through which electrons travel during photosynthesis.
Photosystem II (PSII)
The first photosystem in the electron flow pathway, was named after its discovery after PSI. Found in chloroplasts.
Photosystem I (PSI)
The second photosystem in the electron flow pathway is named after its discovery before PSII. Found in Chloroplasts
P680
The special pair in PSII that absorbs light best at 680 nm.
P700
The special pair in PSI that absorbs light best at 700 nm.
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Part of photosynthesis is where electrons flow linearly, producing ATP and NADPH using light energy in photosystems I and II.
Cyclic photophosphorylation
Part of photosynthesis in plants is where only photosystem I is used, and only produces ATP.
Calvin Cycle
The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis that use ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
Rubisco
The carbon-fixing enzyme that attaches carbon dioxide to ribulose bisphosphate during the Calvin Cycle.
Photorespiration
The process in which Rubisco attaches oxygen instead of carbon dioxide, leading to a decrease in photosynthetic efficiency.
C3 plants
Plants perform photosynthesis using the Calvin Cycle in mesophyll cells. They have a lower photosynthetic efficiency compared to C4 and CAM plants.
C4 plants
Plants that have a spatial separation between the initial carbon fixation step and the Calvin Cycle, allowing them to close their stomates for extended periods of time and continue photosynthesis without photorespiration.
CAM plants
Plants that have a temporal separation between carbon fixation and the Calvin Cycle, opening their stomata at night to fix carbon and store it as malate, which is then broken down during the day to release a constant supply of carbon dioxide for the Calvin Cycle.
Ectotherms
Organisms whose body temperatures vary greatly with the external environment, also known as "cold-blooded" or "thermoconformers".
Endotherms
Organisms that maintain a metabolically favorable, nearly constant internal temperature, largely through internal heat production, also known as "warm-blooded" or "thermoregulators".
Metabolic rates
The rate at which an organism's body converts food into energy, with endotherms generally having higher metabolic rates than ectotherms.
Surface area to volume ratio
The ratio of an organism's surface area to its volume, which affects heat exchange with the environment and can impact metabolic rates, with larger endotherms being more efficient at retaining heat.
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