Denmark Dash to the AP Psychology Exam - Complete Terms Review

Absolute threshold

the weakest level of a stimulus that can be correctly detected at least half the time

Accommodation (perceptual & Piaget)

process by which we modify our schemas to fit new information; process of changing the curvature of the lens to focus light rays on the retina of the eye

Acetylcholine (Ach)

a neurotransmitter that causes contraction of the skeletal muscles, helps regulate heart muscles, is involved in memory, and also transmits messages between the brain and spinal cord. lack of this can lead to Alzheimer's disease.

Action Potential

the "firing" of a neuron; a net flow of sodium ions into the cell that causes a rapid change in potential across the membrane when stimulation reaches threshold

Acuity (vision)

ability to detect fine details; sharpness of vision. Can be affected by small distortions in the shape of the eye

Adler, Alfred

Known as the founder of Individual Psychology, which emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the role of societal factors in shaping personality.

Inferiority Complex

Term used to describe people who compensate for feelings of inadequacy(feeling like they're less than other people, not as good as others, worthless, etc.) by acting ways that make them appear superior

Afferent neurons

(sensory neurons) nerve cells in our PNS that transmits impulse from receptors to the brain or spinal cord

Efferent neurons

(motor neuron) nerve cells in our PNS that transmits impulses from our sensory or interneurons to muscle cells that contract or gland cells that secrete

Androgyny

the presence of desirable masculine or feminine characteristics in one individual

Aggression

any behavior intended to hurt someone, either physically or psychologically

Agonist

a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

a chemical that opposes/blocks the action of a neurotransmitter

agoraphobia

an anxiety disorder in which the main symptom is an intense fear of public places

Algorithms

problem solving strategy that involves a slow, step by step process that guarantees a solution to certain types of problems

All or none law

the law that the neuron either generates an action potential when the stimulation reaches threshold or it doesn't fire when stimulation is below threshold. The strength of action potential is constant whenever it occurs

Altruism

an UNSELFISH interest in helping others

Alzheimer's disease (+ neurotransmitter associated)

a fatal neurocognitive disease in which brain neurons progressively die, causing loss of memory, reasoning, emotion, control of bodily functions, and death
-ACh is associated with this

American Psychological Association (APA)

The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States and Canada

Amnesia (retrograde )

involves memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of the accident, such as a blow to the head-can't remember anything before the accident

Amnesia (anterograde)

a disorder caused by brain damage that disrupts a persons ability to form new long term memories of events that occur after the time or brain damage-can't remember anything after the accident.

Amygdala

part of the limbic system of the brain that influences emotions such as aggression, fear, and self protective behavior; is involved in the storage of emotional memories

Anorexia

eating disorder more common in the adolescent female characterized by weight less than 85% of normal, abnormally restrictive food consumption, and an unrealistic body image that she is still fat

Antidepressants drugs

medicines that elevate mood states; three main categories include tricyclic (such as Elavil), MAO inhibitors (such as Nardil), and SSRI inhibitors (such as Prozac)

Antipsychotic drugs

powerful medicines that lessen agitated behavior, reduce tension, decrease hallucinations and delusions, improve social behavior, and produce better sleep behavior especially in patients with schizophrenia

Antisocial personality disorder

a disorder characterized by a failure to conform to standards of decency; repeated lying and stealing; a failure to sustain lasting loving relationships; low tolerance for boredom; and a complete lack of guilt

Anxiety disorders

A chronic condition characterized by an excessive and persistent sense of apprehension, with physical symptoms such as sweating, palpitations, and feelings of stress

Archetypes

according to Jung, a number of universal themes
that are a part of the collective unconscious

Assimilation

process by which we incorporate new information into our existing cognitive structures or schemas

Asch's conformity study

-line study
-found that people conform for two main reasons: because they want to fit in with the group (normative influence) and because they believe the group is better informed than they are (informational influence).

Association areas

regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have specific sensory or motor functions, but are involved in higher mental functions such as thinking, planning, and communicating

Attachment

a close emotional bond or relationship between the infant and the caregiver

Attitude

learned predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably to certain people, objects or events

Attribution

-a study of our casual explanations for behavior
-we attribute behavior to the individuals disposition or to the stimulus

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

subdivision of PNS that includes motor nerves that stimulate smooth (involuntary) or heart muscle. Its sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for fight or flight; the parasympathetic system causes bodily changes for maintenance or rest

Availability heuristic

a tendency to estimate the probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind

Aversion therapy

the client is trained to associate physical or psychological discomfort with behaviors, thoughts, or situations the client wants to stop or avoid
-putting bad tasting nail polish on your nails so when you bite them you associate the gross taste and stop biting your nails

Axon

a long, single conducted fiber extending from the cell body of a neuron that transmits action potential and that branches the ends and tips called terminal buttons that secrete neurotransmitters

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

found children learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning - through watching the behavior of another person.
-This study has important implications for the effects of media violence on children.

Behavior therapy

treatment approach that uses applications of learning principles to eliminate unwanted behaviors

Behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science based on observable and measurable behaviors

Bell curve

a graph of a normal distribution, with a large rounded peak tapering away at each end.

Big Five or OCEAN

trait theory that says our personalities are composed of different amounts of common traits
-O:openness
-C:conscientiousness
-Extroversion
-A:agreeableness
-N:neuroticism

Binocular cues

clues about distance that require two eyes and that include retinal disparity and convergence

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and giving back information regarding a subtle psychological state

Biopsychosocial model

overarching psychological perspective that integrates biological processes, psychological factors, and social forces to provide a more complete picture of behavior and mental processes than a single approach

Bipolar disorder

characterized by extreme mood swings from unusual excitement (mania) to serious depression

Blind spot

region of the retina, without receptor cells or vision, where the optic nerve leaves the eye

Bottom up processing

data driven information processing that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information to construct perspectives

Broca's aphasia

region in the left frontal lobe that controls the production of speech

Bulimia

an eating disorder characterized by a pattern of eating binges involving intake of thousands of calories, followed by purging either by vomiting or using laxatives

Bystander effect

tendency for an observer to be less likely to give aid if other observers are present

Cannon Bard Theory

theory that emotions and psychological states occur simultaneously
-1920s; theory of emotion; processing emotions and bodily response occur simultaneously; ex. I see a bear, I feel afraid and my heart is racing

Case study

intensive investigation of the behavior and mental processes associated with a specific person or situation

Catharsis

in Freudian psychoanalysis, the release of emotional tension after remembering or reliving an emotionally charged experience from the past; as a coping device for stress, the release of pent up emotions through excercise or other means

Cell body (soma)

also called the soma, the part of the neuron that contains cytoplasm and the nucleus which directs synthesis of such substances as neurotransmitters

Central nervous system (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

Cerebellum

part of the brain stem that controls posture, equilibrium, and movement

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain- center for higher order processes such as thinking, planning, judgement; receives and processes sensory information and directs movements

Chromosomes

Structures in the nucleus of cells that contain genes determined by DNA sequences (46 for humans)

Chunking

grouping information into meaningful units; expands the capacity of short term memory beyond 7 unrelated bits of information

Circadian rhythms

daily patterns of changes that cycle approximately every 24 hours such as sleep/ walk cycle

Classical conditioning

Learning that takes place when two or more stimuli are presented together;
First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist; Involves placing a neutral signal before a natural response; Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors

Client centered therapy (Rogers)

humanistic therapy introduced by Carl Rogers in which the client rather then the therapist directs the treatment process

Cochlea

snail shaped, fluid filled tube in inner ear with hair cells on the Basilar membrane that transduce mechanical energy and vibrating molecules to the electrochemical energy of neural impulses

Cocktail party effect

the phenomenon of being able to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, much the same way that a partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering information

Cognitive dissonance

according to Festinger, the theory that changes in attitudes can be motivated by an unpleasant state of tension caused by a disparity between a person's beliefs or attitudes and behavior

Cognitive map

a mental picture of the layout of ones environment - Research by Edward Toleman with rats and mazes.

Cognitive psychology

the scientific study of mind and mental function, including learning, memory, attention, perception, reasoning, language, conceptual development, and decision making

Cognitive therapy

therapy tat teaches people more adaptive ways of thinking and acting in order to eliminate maladaptive thinking and emotional reactions

Collective unconscious

according to Jung, the powerful and influential system of the psyche that contains universal memories and ideas that all people have inherited from our ancestors over the course of evolution

Concept

a mental grouping or category for similar objects; one of the basic elements of thought

Conditioned Response (CR)

in classical conditioning the learning response to a conditioned stimulus which results from repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, originally a neutral stimulus that comes to trigger a conditioned response after being repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning the stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers the reflexive unconditioned response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus

Cones

photo receptors that detect color and fine details in daylight or in bright conditioned
-none are in periphery

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for and use information that supports our preconception and ignores information that refutes our ideas; often a hindrance to problem solving

Conflicts (4 types)

problems in choosing between alternatives
Approach-Approach; Avoidance-Avoidance; Approach-Avoidance; Multiple approach-avoidance.

Approach-Approach

occurs when you must choose between two desirable outcomes. Ex On Friday night, should you go to the movies with your best friend or dinner with that really cute guy/girl from history class. Assuming both choices appeal to you, you have a conflict because you can only chose one.

Avoidance-Avoidance

occurs when you must choose between two unattractive outcomes. Ex-If your parents tell you to clean your room or rake leaves and you desire neither one you are experiencing an avoidance-avoidance conflict.

Approach-Avoidance

exists when ONE event or goal has both attractive and unattractive features. Let's say you love cotton candy but the sugar makes you nervous. Cotton candy has both attractive (tastes gooood) and unattractive (nervous) features.

Multiple approach-avoidance

here you must choose between two or more things, each of which has both desirable and undesirable features. The best example is choosing a college that you want to go to. Obviously you are deciding between Duke and Harvard. Well Duke has better weather (attractive), but their lacrosse team is not the most upstanding (unattractive). Harvard has a great legacy (attractive) but crimson is such a horrid color (unattractive).

Conformity

the adoption of attitudes and behaviors shared by a particular group of people

Confounding variable

in a controlled experiment, factors that cause difference between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable

Consciousness

awareness of the outside world and ourselves, including our own mental processes, thoughts, feelings, and perceptions

Continuous reinforcement

the schedule of reinforcement where each desire behavior admitted by the organism is rewarded

Control group

in a controlled experiment, the comparison group; the subgroup of the sample that is similar to the experimental group in every way except for the presence of the independent variable

Convergence

extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object

Convergent/divergent thinking

convergent thinking: conventional thinking; thinking direct toward a single correct solution

divergent thinking: thinking that produces many alternatives or ideas; creativity

Conversion disorders

a somatic symptom disorder involving the actual loss of bodily function, such as blindness, paralysis, and numbness, due to excessive anxiety with no psychological

Cornea

transparent, curved layers in the front of the eye that bends incoming light rays

Corpus collosum

broad band of nervous tissue that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres transmitting information from one side of the brain to the other

Correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the degree of relatedness or association between two sets of data that range from -1 to +1

Correlational research

A correlation is simply defined as a relationship between two variables. The whole purpose of using correlations in research is to figure out which variables are connected.

Creativity

the ability to generate ideas and solutions that are original, novel, and useful

Critical period

a time interval during which specific stimuli have a major effect on development that the stimuli do not produce at other times

Cross sectional study

a method of assessing development changes by evaluating different age groups of people at the same time

Crystallized intelligence

learned knowledge and skills such as vocab, which tend to increase with age