Study Guide 2

For Chapters 6 through 8

What is the lack of oxygen called? 

Hypoxia

Hypoxia 

An insufficiency of oxygen in the body's tissues.

⤷ Lack of oxygen

What is the function of blood? 

Transport oxygens, protects against pathogens, and promotes clotting to control bleeding

Blood

Made up of plasma, red and white blood cells, and platelets.

Plasma

• A watery, salty fluid; makes up more than half the vol of blood. Red & white blood cells, as well as platelets are carried in the plasma. 

⤷ Waste carbon dioxide from the cells also dissolves in plasma to be transported back to the lungs.  

Red blood cells

(RBCs, erythrocytes, or red corpuscles) 

• Primary function; carry oxygen to the tissues.  

⤷  Color of blood is red because hemoglobin molecules. 

White blood cells

(WBCs, leukocytes, or white corpuscles) 

• Involved in destroying microorganisms (germs) and producing substances called antibodies, which help the body resist infections. 

Platelets

• Membrane-closed fragments of specialized cells.  

⤷ When these fragments are activated, they release chemical clotting factors needed to form blood clots. 

Structures within the respiratory system and its functions

• Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchial Tubes, Lungs 

⤷ Obtains oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the body. 

Structures within the musculoskeletal system and its functions

• Bones, Joints, Muscles  

⤷ Skeleton supports and protects the body, forms blood cells, and stores minerals. Muscles produce movement.  

Structures within the cardiovascular system and its functions

• Heart, Arteries, Veins 

⤷ Pumps blood throughout the entire body to transport nutrients, oxygen, and wastes.  

Structures within blood and its functions

• Plasma, Red blood cells, White blood cells, Platelets 

⤷ Transports oxygen, protects against pathogens, and promotes clotting to control bleeding.  

Structures within the lymphatic system and its function

• Tonsils / Adenoids, Thymus Gland, Spleen, Lymph Nodes, Lymphatic vessels 

⤷ Helps to maintain the fluid balance of the body and contributes to the body's immune system.  

Structures within the nervous system and its functions

• Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves 

⤷ Receives sensory information and coordinates the body's response.  It also controls the body’s voluntary and involuntary activity.

Structures within the digestive system and its functions

• Oral Cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine (colon), Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas.  

⤷ Ingests, digests, and absorbs nutrients for the body. 

Structures within integumentary system and its functions

• Skin, Hair, Nails, Sweat Glands.  

⤷ Forms protective barrier and aids in temperature regulation.  

Structures within endocrine system and its functions

• Pituitary Gland, Pineal Gland, Thyroid Gland, Parathyroid Glands, Thymus Gland, Adrenal Glands, Pancreas, Testes, Ovaries.  

⤷ Regulates metabolic / hormonal activites of the body.

Structures within renal/urinary system and its functions

• Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, Urethra.  

⤷ Filters waste products out of the blood and removes them from the body.  

Structures within male reproductive system and its functions

• Testes, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Penis, Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland.  

⤷ Produces sperm for reproduction.  

Structures within female reproductive system and its functions

• Ovaries, Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts), Uterus, Vagina, Vulva, Breasts.  

⤷ Produces eggs for reproduction and provides an environment and nutrients for growing baby.  

Define Infarction

  

Tissue death due to inadequate blood supply (lack of O₂).  

Define Necrosis

Death of a cell or group of cells due to injury or disease.  

Define Ischemia

An insufficient supply of oxygenated blood to an area of the body. 

⤷ lack of blood flow

Define Hypoxia

An insufficiency of oxygen in the body’s tissues.  

Define Pre-load

How much blood is returned to the heart before it contracts; how much the heart is filled.  

Define Afterload

 Function of SVR; it is how much pressure the heart has to pump against to force blood out into the system.  

Define Systolic

Relating to the phase of the heartrate when the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood from the chambers into the arteries. 

Define Diastolic

Relating to the phase of the heartrate when the heart muscle relaxes and allows the chambers to fill with blood. 

What part of the breastplate is this?

Body of Sternum

What part of the breastplate is this?

Xiphoid process

What part of the breastplate is this?

Manubrium

Tendons connect what to what?

Tendons connect muscle to bones

Ligaments connect what to what?

Liagaments connect bone to bone

What are the important arteries to know?

• coronary arteries

• aorta

• pulmonary artery

• carotid artery

• femoral artery

• brachial artery

• radial artery

• posterior tibial artery

• dorsalis pedis artery

Perfusion

the supply of oxygen to and removal of wastes from the cells and tissues of the body as a result of the flow of blood through the capillaries

what do our bodies need?

oxygen, sugar, and water

Hypoperfusion

inability of the body to circulate adequate blood to the body’s cells to supply them with oxygen and nutrients. a life threatening condition. also called shock.

⤷ When perfusion becomes inadequate; could be from super low sugar levels, too low on water, or even too low on oxygen

the nervous system consists of what?

• central nervous system (CNS)

  • brain and spinal cord

• peripheral nervous system (PNS)

  • sensory nerves and motor nerves

• autonomic nervous system

  • involuntary motor functions

    • sympathetic; ‘gas pedal’ fight or flight & parasympathetic; ‘the break’ when everything is ‘slow’

what consists of the integumentary system?

• layers

  • epidermis

  • dermis

  • subcutaneous

epidermis

• the outer layer of the skin, composed of dead cells that are continuously replaced

• contains pigment granules and living cells in its deeper parts

• lack blood vessels and nerves, making it less problematic for minor injuries

dermis

• the inner (second) layer of skin, rich in blood vessels, nerves, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and hair follicles, found beneath the epidermis

• contains specialized nerve endings for touch, temperature, and pain

• vulnerable to contamination and infection if exposed

subcutaneous

• the layers of fat and soft tissues found below the dermis, providing shock absorption and insulation

• injury to this layer can lead to contamination, bleeding, and pain

Endocrine system

Produces hormones that regulate many body activities and functions  

Adrenal glands 

Secretes epinephrine

when does shock occur?

when the cardiopulmonary system fails and cells become hypoperfused

when your blood sugar gets too low, the first thing affected is what?

brain

oxygen gets thinner everytime we are in a higher elevation, does the percent of oxygen change?

no, it does not change. it remains the same percent; 21

homeostasis

• A state of balance among all the body systems needed for the body to survive and function correctly.

  • In homeostasis, body levels of acid, blood pressure, blood sugar, electrolytes, energy, hormones, oxygen, proteins, and temperature are constantly adjusted to respond to changes inside and outside the body, to keep them at a normal level.

Hypertension

high blood pressure; a condition where blood pressure is consistently 130/80 mmHg or higher

hypotension

low blood pressure; a condition where blood pressure is below the normal range, potentially affecting vital organs like the brain and heart — less than 90/60 mmHg

Infancy (birth-1y/o)

Heart Rate H/R	Respiratory Volume R/V	Respiratory Rate R/R	Systolic B/P
100-170bpm: Newborns    90-160bpm: Infant to 1y/o	7-8mL/kg at birth,     increasing to 10-15mL/1y/o	30-60/rpm   (0-6mo.)     24-30/rpm  (6-12mo.)	50-70mmHg for Newborns    About 90mmHg up to 1y/o

Toddler (1y/o - 3y/o)  

Heart Rate H/R	Respiratory Rate R/R	Systolic B/P
80-140/bpm	24-40/rpm	For ages 1-10y/o: Mean systolic pressure is 90+ (age in years x2)     Ex: Systolic pressure for 2y/o is 92

Preschool (3y/o - 5y/o)  

Heart Rate R/R	Respiratory Rate R/R	Systolic Blood Pressure B/P
70-120/bpm	22-34/rpm	For ages 1 to 10y/o.: Mean systolic pressure is 90+ (age in years x2), so mean systolic pressure for 2y/o is 94BP.     This is an average, and individual blood pressures vary.

School Age (6y/o - 12y/o)  

Heart Rate R/R	Respiratory Rate R/R	Systolic Blood Pressure B/P
65-120/bpm	18-30/rpm	For ages 1 to 10y/o: mean systolic pressure is 90+ (age in years x2), so mean systolic pressure for 2y/o is 94. This is an average, and individual blood pressures vary.

Adolescence (13y/o - 18y/o)  

Heart Rate H/R	Respiratory Rate R/R	Systolic Blood Pressure B/P
60-100/bpm	12-20/rpm	About 107-117B/P

Early Adulthood (19y/o - 40y/o)  

Heart Rate H/R	Respiratory Rate R/R	Systolic Blood Pressure B/P
60-100/bpm	12-20/rpm	Less than 120B/P

Middle Adulthood (41y/o - 60y/o)  

Heart Rate H/R	Respiratory Rate R/R	Systolic Blood Pressure B/P
No significant change	No significant change	No significant change

Late Adulthood (61y/o +)  

Heart Rate H/R	Respiratory Rate R/R	Systolic Blood Pressure B/P
Changes depend on health status	Changes depend on health status	Changes depend on health status

aerobic metabolism

the cellular process in which oxygen is used to metabolize glucose. Energy is produced in an efficient manner, with minimal waste products.

anaerobic metabolism

the cellular process in which glucose is metabolized into energy without oxygen. Energy is produced in an inefficient manner, with many waste products.

homeostasis is regulated where?

• in the brain and is maintained through a delicate balance of nervous system feedback and messaging

  • hypothalamus and the medulla oblongata, receive sensory input and recognize challenges such as increasing carbon dioxide levels, hypoxia, and blood loss.

cardiac output

The amount of blood pumped out of a ventricle in one minute.

compensated shock

• Period when the patient is developing shock but the body is still able to maintain perfusion.

⤷ BP & HR are elevated ↑, delayed capillary response, slight mental status; skin signs would be pale, cool, clammy/diaphoretic/sweating

what are the four distinct groupings of shock?

• hypovolemic shock

• distributive shock

• cardiogenic shock

• obstructive shock

hypovolemic shock

shock resulting from blood or fluid loss

obstructive shock

a term commonly used to describe the different conditions that block the flow of blood and cause hypoperfusion

cardiogenic shock

shock, or lack of perfusion, brought on not by blood loss but by the heart’s inadequate pumping action. it is often the result of a heart attack (MI) or congestive heart failure

decompensated shock

• period when the body can no longer compensate for low blood volume or lack of perfusion; late signs such as decreasing blood pressure becomes evident

⤷ HR, RR, & BP drop ↓, altered mental status

distributive shock

hypoperfusion due to a lack of blood vessel tone. blood vessel dilation leads to decreased pressure within the circulatory system

dead air space

air that occupies the space between the mouth and alveoli but that does not actually reach the area of gas exchange

Pump with average stroke volume of about what (output)?

70 mL per contraction

stroke volume

the amount of blood ejected from the heart in one contraction

cardiac output

the amount of blood ejected from the heart in one minute (heart rate x stroke volume)

stages of shock

• compensated

• decompensated

• irreversible

edema

swelling associated with the movement of water into the interstitial space

CF or cerebrospinal fluid

the fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord

• shock-absorbing

why is glucose important?

crucial for the body’s energy needs

autonomic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling involuntary motor functions, such as digestion and heart rate

cervical

7 vertebrae (C1-C7); atlas C1 — axis C2, neck region

Thoracic

12 vertebrae (T1-T12); ribs & upper back

Lumbar

5 vertebrae (L1-L5); lower back

Sacral

5 vertebrae (S1-S5); back wall of pelvis (5 fused)

Coccyx

4 vertebrae (3-5 fused); tailbone

function of respiratory system

the system of the nose, mouth, throat, lungs, and muscles that brings oxygen into the body and expels carbon dioxide. also called pulmonary system.

describe the flow of blood through the body

pulmonary veins

blood vessels that transport oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart

pulmonary arteries

blood vessels that carry oxygen-poor blood from the right side of your heart to your lungs

flow of blood through the body

• blood flow starts on the right side of the heart

• right blood = deoxygenated blood (colored blue)

• it’s low in oxygen & high in carbon dioxide

• goal: get blood to lungs

• deoxygenated blood flows into right atrium via inferior & superior vena cava

• then blood flows down tricuspid valve

• it’s 1 of 2 atrioventricular valves, which connect atria (top chamber) to ventricles (bottom chambers)

• blood enters the right ventricle, which then pushes blood up through pulmonic valve

• semilunar valves connect great vessels to ventricles (bottom chamber of heart)

• blood enters pulmonary artery, which will take deoxygenated blood away from heart & then travel to the lungs

• lungs take deoxygenated blood, remove the excessive carbon dioxide (that you exhale out) & replenish it with oxygen

• blood leaves lungs & returns to heart via pulmonary veins

• it enters the left atrium, flows down the bicuspid valve, & enters left ventricle

• left ventricle pushes blood up through the aortic valve

• blood travels through aorta and to rest of body

cell

• cell membrane

• nucleus

• mitochondria

• endoplasmic reticulum

• water and electrolytes

cell membrane

an outer layer that protects the cell and controls what enters and exists, maintaining a balance of water and electrolytes

nucleus

acts as the control center, housing DNA, which is crucial for cell reproduction and function

mitochondria

known as the powerhouse, they convert glucose and nutrients into energy (ATP), which fuels cellular activities

endoplasmic reticulum

involved in synthesizing proteins and lipids, essential for cell maintenance and growth

water and electrolytes

cells need a proper balance of water and electrolytes like sodium and potassium to function properly, enabling processes like nerve transmission and muscle contraction

what side is your ulna located on?

medial (pinky) side

what side is your radius located on?

lateral (thumb) side

What happens when you have pulmonary edema?

Fluid gets into the alveoli. Gas exchange cannot take place because the O2 cannot move through the fluid. 

If you have burns on your body, what are we concerned with?

We are concerned with treating for shock, Pt is losing fluids through the interstitial space.

What does insulin allow for glucagon to do? And where is it stored?

Insulin allows Glucagon to concert glucose to glycogen and the glycogen is stored in the liver.

Where is glycogen stored?

Glycogen is stored in the liver.