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zone of proximal development (ZPD)
the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with help
scaffolding
a teaching method that helps learners achieve tasks they couldn't do on their own
phonemes
the smallest units of sound
morphenes
the smallest unit of meaningful sound in a language
syntax
the order of words used in a language
grammar
the mental processes that control how people use language to communicate. It's made up of rules and structures that govern how symbols are combined to create meaning.
social learning theory
the psychological concept that people learn primarily through observing and imitating the behaviors of others
Trust Vs Mistrust (Hope)
At this stage babies learn to trust their parents will meet their basic needs. If a child’s basic needs aren’t properly met at this age, they might grow up with a general mistrust of the world. (0-2)
Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (Will)
as toddlers, children begin to develop independence and start to learn that they can do things on their own (such as going to the toilet). If a child is not encouraged properly at this age, they might develop shame and doubt about their abilities (2-3)
Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose)
As preschoolers, children continue to develop more independence and start to do things of their own initiative. If a child is not able to take initiative and succeed at appropriate tasks, they might develop guilt over their needs and desires (4-6)
Industry vs Inferiority(Competence)
Throughout their school years, children continue to develop self-confidence through learning new things. If they are not encouraged and praised properly at this age, they may develop an inferiority complex. (7-12)
identity vs role confusiong (fidelity)
teenage years, children start to care about how they look to others. They start forming their own identity by experimenting with who they are. If a teenager is unable to properly develop an identity at this age, his or her role confusion will probably continue onto adulthood
intimacy vs isolation (love)
during early adulthood, people fall in love, get married and start building their own family. If a person is unable to develop intimacy with others at this age they will probably develop feelings of isolation. (20-34)
Generativity vs Stagnation (care)
this is the longest period of a human’s life. It is the stage in which people are usually working and contributing to society in some way and perhaps raising their children. If a person does not find proper ways to be productive during this period, they will probably develop feelings of stagnation. (35-65)
Integrity vs Despair (wisdom)
as senior citizens, people tend to look back on their lives and think about what they have or have no accomplished. If a person has led a productive life, they will develop a feeling of integrity. If not, they might fall into despair.
language development
in children is a complex process that occurs in stages, each characterized by distinct behaviors and cognitive processes. Understanding these stages provides insight into how children learn to communicate and develop cognitive skills. Key stages include cooing, babbling, the one-word stage, telegraphic speech, and phenomena like overgeneralization.
cooing (2-3 months)
the production of vowel-like sounds, such as “oo” and “ah”. this stage marks the beginning of vocal experimentation.
babbling (around 4-6 months)
consists of repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like “baba” or “dada”. This stage involves more complex sound combinations and vocal play
one-word stage (around 12-18 months)
during the one-word stage, children begin to produce single words that carry significant meaning. These words are often nouns or labels for familiar objects, people, or actions
telegraphic speech (around 18-24 months)
telegraphic speech involves two or three word combinations that resemble telegrams, such as “want cookie” or “big dog”. These utterances are short and omit non essential words.
overgeneralization
occurs when a children apply regular grammatical rules to irregular words. This is common as children learn and internalize the rules of language. A child saying “goed” instead of “went” or “mouses” instead of “mice” as they apply regular past tense or plural rules to irregular verbs and nouns.
nonverbal manual gestures
are movements of the hands and arms that convey meaning without the use of words. These can include gestures used in sign languages, as well as gestures that accompany spoken language.
parenting styles - diane buamrind
tied in with achievement - learned motivation that promotes individuals to find challenging tasks at which to succeed
authoritarian
parents are coercive, strict rules and high expectations, very demanding, not responsive, dont express muchh warmth or nurturing, utilize punishments with little or no explanation, dont give their children choices or options
authoritative
listen to their children, both demanding and responsive, encourage independence, place limits, consequences and expectations on their children’s behavior, express warmth and nurturance, allow children to express opinions, administer fair and consistent discipline, children tend to have the highest self esteem
permissive
referred to as indulgent parents, have very few demands to make of their children, rarely discipline their children, relatively low expectations of maturity and self control, non traditional and lenient, avoid confrontation, generally nurturing and communicative with their children, often taking the status of a friend than that of a parent
neglectful
neither demanding or responsive, careless and inattentive, do no seek close relationships with their children
chomsky
Chomsky's theory that all humans are born with an innate ability to learn language.
Another name for Chomsky's theory, based on the idea that humans are born with a language acquisition device
navitism
the idea that certain skills and abilities are innate, or hardwired into the brain at birth
language acquisition device
a purported instinctive mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and produce language. It is a component of the nativist theory of language
harlow’s study
Harry Harlow theory stated that the need for a mother's love is not physical, but rather, emotional. The Harlow monkey experiment also showed that the younger the child, the more crucial the need for comfort. As the child ages, their capacity for attachment wanes.
Ainsworth Strange Situation Studies
refers to a standardized psychological experiment designed by Mary Ainsworth to observe and assess the attachment between an infant and their primary caregiver by exposing them to a series of controlled separations and reunions with the caregiver and a stranger in an unfamiliar environment
secure attachment
a healthy emotional bond between an infant and their primary caregiver, where the baby feels safe, protected, and able to explore their environment confidently, knowing that their caregiver is readily available to comfort them when needed
insecure attachment
a pattern of attachment characterized by anxiety, uncertainty, and mistrust in close relationships.
self concept
a person's perception of who they are, including their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs about themselves.
stranger anxiety
a normal developmental stage where infants or toddlers exhibit distress, avoidance, or crying in response to encounters with unfamiliar adults or children.
emerges around 6-8 months of age and peaks between 10-12 months. It gradually subsides as children develop their cognitive and social skills, usually resolving by the age of 2-3 years.
critical period
a specific time window during development when an organism is particularly sensitive to certain environmental experiences that can influence their lifelong abilities, behaviors, or cognitive functions.
sensitive period
a specific window of time during development when an individual is particularly receptive to certain environmental stimuli and experiences.
critical period vs sensitive period
Critical period. A clearly defined period of time in which an event or experience must occur in order for it to have an effect. Sensitive period. A more loosely defined period of time in which an event or experience is more likely to have an effect than another time.
imprinting
a process of early learning in which a young animal or infant forms a strong and enduring attachment to a specific object or individual, typically during a critical period in their development.
mere exposure effect
the tendency for people to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them
temperament
ones emotional intensity/reactivity
ecological systems theory
devised by Urie Bronfenbrenner in 1974.
He questioned the belief that a child’s social and psychological development was affected primarily by biological factors
Bronfenbrenner gave a comprehensive model of child development that explained how the child’s ecosystem affects their development
microsystem (1)
the immediate environment of a person, including the relationships and interactions they have with those in their environment.
examples: Family, School, Neighborhood, Childcare environments, Friendship groups, and Religious or community social groups.
mesosystem (2)
a level of the ecological systems theory that describes the different parts of a person's microsystem work together or against each other
exosystem (3)
external social settings that a person is not directly involved in, but still significantly impact their development and experiences within their immediate environment
examples: A parent's job promotion leading to longer work hours, community policies impacting access to childcare, or government regulations affecting a child's school environment.
macrosystem (4)
a child’s environment, made up of cultural values, laws, and institutions
examples: cultural values, beliefs, traditions, social norms, and customs
chronosystem (5)
the fifth outermost ring in the Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems Theory. It looks at the experiences a child encounters throughout their development in childhood and how it affects their lives.
examples: Major life transitions like a parent's divorce, historical events like a pandemic, societal shifts, and personal experiences that occur over time.
