(BIOCHEM LEC) Carbohydrates Part 2

What are the 3 important disaccharides?

1. -

2. -

3. -

Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose

What are the components of sucrose? ___________ and _____________

Glucose and fructose

What are the components of lactose? ____________ and __________

Glucose
Galactose

What are the components of maltose? ___________ and ________

Glucose
Glucose

What are the 2 primary types of glycosidic links?

1. -

2. -

Alpha glycosidic link
Beta glycosidic link

MALTOSE

• also known as _____________ or _______________

• _________ + ___________

• __________(germinated barley that has been baked and ground) contains MALTOSE

• produced whenever STARCH breaks down when seeds germinated in plants and in human beings during STARCH DIGESTION

• Three forms of maltose molecule: ___________, _____________ (solid state, the b-form is DOMINANT) and the _________________

• Glycosidic link: _______________________

Malt sugar
Beer sugar
Glucose
Glucose
Malt
alpha-maltose
beta-maltose
open-chain form
Alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkage

CELLOBIOSE

• formed from ______________ of _______________

• 2 GLUCOSE units but the glycosidic linkage: ____________________

• hydrolyzed by ____________

Human body nahihirapan idigest pag BETA (ex. corn) since less likely to be water-soluble. ANIMALS DIGEST IT EASIER.

intermediate hydrolysis
cellulose
beta 1-4 glycosidic linkage
cellulase

LACTOSE

• also known as __________________

• _________ + _____________

• glycosidic linkage: __________________

• _______________ of lactose is SWEETER to the taste and MORE SOLUBLE in water than the beta form

• Enzyme: __________

Milk sugar
Galactose
Glucose
beta-1-4 linkage
alpha form
lactase

LACTULOSE

• SYNTHETICALLY MADE

• __________ + ____________

• NEITHER DIGESTED nor ABSORBED in the intestine

• Laxative

• Treatment of ____________________ resulting in a ____________ in the plasma ____ since _______ ions are not easily absorbed

Galactose
Fructose
Hepatic encephalopathy
reduction
NH3
NH4+

SUCROSE

• only ________________ sugar (doesn’t have free aldehyde hidden inside bond)

• ___________ + ______________

• also known as _________________

• ________________ contains up to ________ by mass sucrose, and ____________ contains up to _________ by mass sucrose

• glycosidic linkage: _____________________ or ______________ (depending on the reference)

• hydrolyzed by the enzyme ____________

• The -OH group on carbon ___ of ___________ (the hemiacetal carbon) reacts with the -OH group of carbon ____ of ____________ (the hemiacetal carbon)

Non-reducing
Glucose
Fructose
Table sugar
Sugar cane
20%
Sugar beets
17%
beta (1—>2) glycosidic linkage
alpha (1—>2) glycosidic linkage
sucrase
2
D-fructose
1
D-glucose

TREHALOSE

• pwede makita pag nagawa ka na gamot

• composed of TWO GLUCOSE UNITS bonded by ________________________

• used as a ________________ in BIOLOGICS and VACCINES

• protects ___________ from ____________ and ____________

alpha 1-1 glycosidic linkage
stabilizing agent
proteins
denaturation
dehydration

Polysaccharides are classified based on:

1. -

2. -

Function
Product of hydrolysis

The smallest polysaccharide has around ____________ units

5000

What are the 2 types under function?

1. -

2. -

Storage
Structural

______________________

• storage from for monosaccharides and is used as an ENERGY SOURCE in cell

• stored in the form of polysaccharides to LOWER THE OSMOTIC PRESSURE within cells

• Examples: _____________ and ______________

___________ is the storage for HUMANS

___________ is the storage for PLANTS

Storage polysaccharide

Glycogen
Starch
Glycogen
Starch

STARCH

• also known as __________, ____________, ____________

• the energy-storage polysaccharide in plants

• if EXCESS GLUCOSE enters a plant cell, it is converted to ______________ and stored for later use

• When the cell cannot get enough glucose from outside the cell, it HYDROLYZES starch to release __________

• You get ____________ before __________

Starch is composed of 2 things
_____________: LINEAR

_____________: BRANCHED

_____________: enzyme in MOUTH that is responsible for breaking down of starch

Glucan
Glucose
Amylum
Starch
Glucose
Maltose
Glucose
Amylose
Amylopectin
Amylase

GLYCOGEN

• function is similar to that of starch in plants, and it is sometimes referred to as ______________

• _________ + _________

• _________ and __________ are the STORAGE SITES for glycogen in humans

• Glycosidic linkages: ___________________ and ____________

• _________________: the liver and muscle tissue converts the excess GLUCOSE to GLYCOGEN, which is then stored in these tissues

• _______________: synthesis of glycogen

• ______________: some stored glycogen is hydrolyzed back to glucose

• _______________: decomposition of glycogen (this happens in fasting/ “fasted state”

animal starch

glucose
glucose
liver cells
muscle cells
alpha 1—>4
alpha 1—>6
Excess blood glucose
glycogenesis
Low blood glucose
glycogenolysis

_____________________

• serves as a structural element in plant cell walls and animal exoskeletons

• Examples: ______________ and _______________

Structural polysaccharide
Cellulose
Chitin

CELLULOSE

• the structural component of ______________

• MOST ABUNDANT naturally occurring polysaccharide

• “___________” portions of plants —___________, ____________, and _____________, have particularly high concentrations of this FIBROUS, WATER-INSOLUBLE substance

• Glycosidic linkages: __________________

• __________ glucose units, which gives macromolecules with molecular masses of about 900,000 amu

• ____________ is almost pure cellulose (____%) and ___________ is about ____% cellulose

• Humans lack _____________ capable of catalyzing the hydrolysis of beta (1—>4) linkages in cellulose

• ______________, an enzyme that can hydrolyze cellulose beta (1—4) linkages and produce free glucose from cellulose

• ____________________ such as horses, cows, and sheep contain BACTERIA tat produce cellulase

• Cellulose is “__________”

• ____________________ provides the digestive tract with “bulk” that helps move food through the intestinal tract and facilitates the excretion of solid waste

• Bind lipids such as ____________ and carry them out of the body with feces

• Desirable intake: _____ - _________ grams of dietary daily

• _________________ is an example of bulk laxative that dehydrates you

plant cell walls
woody
stems
stalks
trunks
beta (1—>4)
5000
cotton
95
wood
50
cellulase
cellulase
intestinal tracts of animals
fiber
dietary fiber
cholesterol
25-35
C-Lium fibre

CHITIN

• gives RIGIDITY to the _____________ of crabs, lobsters, shrimp, insects, and other arthropods

• also occurs in the ___________ of __________

• ______________(no branching) with all _________________ glycosidic linkages

• Monomer: _________________________ (N-acetyl amino derivative of D-glucose)

exoskeleton
cell walls
fungi
linear polymer
beta 1—>4
N-acetylglucosamine

What are the 3 types under PRODUCT OF HYDROLYSIS?

1. -

2. -

3. -

Homopolysaccharide
Heteropolysaccharide
Mucopolysaccharide

______________________

• on hydrolysis yield only A SINGLE TYPE OF MONOSACCHARIDE

• ____________ are polymers of glucose whereas __________ are polymers of fructose

• Examples: ____________, ______________, _____________, and ____________

• An example of polymer of glucose is ____________

• An example of polymer of fructose is ____________

Homopolysaccharide
Glucans
Fructosans
Starch
Glycogen
Chitin
Cellulose
Starch
Inulin

_______________________

• on hydrolysis yield a mixture of a few monosaccharides or their derivatives

• ___________________ also known as _____________________ are made up of repeating units of sugar derivatives, namely ______________ and ______________

• Uronic acids are __________ and ___________

Heteropolysaccharide

Mucopolysaccharide
Glycosaminoglycans
Amino sugars
Uronic acids
C6 only
Oxidized

_____________________

• long unbranched/linear heteropolysaccharides with repeating disaccharide units

• with _____________________, ____________, and ____________

• Sulphate group can be __________, ___________, ______ or ______

• __________ and __________ contributes to ACIDITY of the molecules, making them ____________________

• connective tissue-cartilage, skin, blood vessels, tendons consist of ___________ and _______________ embedded in a matrix or ground substance predominantly composed of __________________

• found in combination with proteins to form _____________ or ___________ or _______________

Mucopolysaccharide
acetylated amino group
sulphate group
carboxyl group
acidic
negatively charged
SO3
SO4
Sulfate
Carboxyl group
Acidic polysaccharide
collagen
elastin fibers
glycosaminoglycans
mucoproteins
mucoids
Proteoglycans

_____________________

• very good lubricating fluid

• _________________: enzyme that breaks Beta 1—>3 linkages hyaluronic acid and other glycosaminoglycans

• present in HIGH concentrations in ______, _____________, and in certain snake and insect venoms

• ______________ in joints

• indicated for knee pain associated with ________________, works by acting as a lubricant and shock absorber, facilitating _______________ and thereby reducing osteoarthritic pain

• ophthalmological preparations or oral capsules to treat discomfort caused by dry eyes or ______________ and for its protective qualities during and before eye surgery

• used in cosmetic applications to prevent and reduce the appearance of wrinkles on the face, and as a _____________ to correct facial imperfections or other imperfections on other parts of the body

• attract water and induce swelling, increasing tissue volume and skin structural integrity

Hyaluronic acid
Hyaluronidase
testes
seminal fluid
shock absorber
osteoarthritis
joint mobility
conjunctivitis
dermal filler

_______________________

BIOTECH: improves the absorption and dispersion of parenterally administered fluids, drugs, and contrast agents.

IN SEMEN: important role in fertilization it clears the gel (hyaluronic acid) around the ovum allowing a better penetration of sperm into the ovum.

IN BACTERIA: helps their invasion into the animal tissues

Hyaluronidase

Dermatan (Dermatan sulfate): _______________ and ____________________

Chondroitin (Chondroitin 4-sulfate): _____________ and ________________________

L-Iduronic acid
N-Acetylgalactosamine 4 -sulfate

D-Glucuronic acid
N-Acetylgalactosamine 4-sulfate

KERATAN

• small amounts of:

1. -

2. -

3. -

Mannose
Fructose
Sialic acid

HEPARIN

• mainly for _________ problems

• Sulfated glycosaminoglycan, ___________charged

• Composed of repeating disaccharide units of glucosamine and uronic acids, highly sulfated

• Widely used anticoagulant drug

• Used to prevent thrombus formation and is essential in surgical and dialysis procedures

• Glycosidic linkage: _________________

• unbranched alternating units

_____________: preventing clotting and blockage for blood pressure

blood
negatively
alpha 1—>4
anti-coagulant

DEXTRAN

• _________________________ (glucose polymer), considered a pharmaceutical biomaterial

• Function as:

1. - (IMPORTANT FUNCTION)

2. Antithrombotic effects in some formulations

3. Matrix for drug delivery systems

4. used in size exclusion chromatography

• In terms of structure, it is a complex branched polysaccharide with linear glycosidic links of ___________

• Branches occur mainly via alpha 1—>3 links, and then less frequently via alpha 1—>2 and alpha 1—>4

Homopolysaccharide
Plasma volume expander
alpha 1→6

ALGINATE

• ____________________________ composed of ____________ and ____________

• Mainly used in:

1. -

2. Part of hydrogels for drug delivery

3. Used in gastroesophageal reflux formulations

4. Important in controlled-release drug systems

• coats your stomach

• helps in preventing ulcer

• There are alginate-based antacid formulations

• Mainly used to create a _________________ in the stomach

• Glycosidic links are _______________

• UNIQUE block-wise patters (______________ and _____________)

heteropolysaccharide
mannuronic
guluronic
Wound dressings
floating gel barrier
alpha 1—>4

homopolymeric
heteropolymeric

Eggbox structure:

1. ____________: gel not very gel-like, contains metals and drugs

2. ____________: for flexibility and viscosity

3. ____________: balanced of both for stability

G-block
M-block
GM-block

CHITOSAN

• _______________________ composed of mainly _________________ units

• Mainly used in the following:

1. Enhances mucoadhesion and drug absorption

2. Exploration for vaccine delivery and nanoparticles

3. Used in wound healing materials

• ____________________ and ___________________________ are the main repeating units

• Glucosidic links are _____________, conformation is similar to CELLULOSE

• The DEACYLATED FORM OF ______

heteropolysaccharides
glucosamine
D-glucosamine
N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
beta 1—>4
Chitin